Learn the Types of Writing: Expository, Descriptive, Persuasive, and Narrative

Whether you write essays, business materials, fiction, articles, letters, or even just notes in your journal, your writing will be at its best if you stay focused on your purpose. While there are many reasons why you might be putting pen to paper or tapping away on the keyboard, there are really only four main types of writing: expository, descriptive, persuasive, and narrative.

Each of these four writing genres has a distinct aim, and they all require different types of writing skills. You may also have heard them referred to in an academic setting as modes of discourse or rhetorical modes. Institutions of higher learning teach nine traditional rhetorical modes, but the majority of pieces we are called upon to write will have one of these four main purposes.

Expository Writing

The word expository contains the word expose, so the reason expository is an apt descriptor for this type of writing is that it exposes, or sets forth, facts. It is probably the most common writing genre you will come across throughout your day. In an expository piece, a topic will be introduced and laid out in a logical order without reference to the author’s personal opinions.

Expository writing can be found in:

Textbooks Journalism (except for opinion and editorial articles) Business writing Technical writing Essays Instructions

All of these kinds of writing are expository because they aim to explain and inform.

The municipal government of Happyville unanimously approved the construction of sixty-two miles of bike trails in 2017. Made possible by a new tax levy, the bike trails are expected to help the city reach its sustainability and clean air goals while reducing traffic and congestion. Eighteen trailheads with restrooms and picnic areas have been planned at a variety of access points. The city expects construction to be complete in April 2021.

Because this paragraph supplies the reader with facts and figures about its topic, the new bike trails, without offering the author’s opinion on it, it is expository.

Descriptive Writing

The aim of descriptive writing is to help the reader visualize, in detail, a character, event, place, or all of these things at once. The author might describe the scene in terms of all five senses. Descriptive writing allows the writer a great deal more artistic freedom than expository writing does.

Descriptive writing can be found in:

Fiction Poetry Advertising Journal and diary writing

The children pedaled leisurely down the Happyville Bike Trail, their giggles and whoops reverberating through the warm spring air. Sweet-scented wildflowers brought an array of color to the gently undulating landscape, tempting the children to dismount now and then so they could lay down in the springy, soft grass.

Through description, this passage paints a vivid picture of a scene on the new bike trail.

Persuasive Writing

The aim of persuasive writing, or argumentation, is to influence the reader to assume the author’s point of view. The author will express personal opinions in the piece and arm him- or herself with evidence so that the reader will agree with him or her.

Persuasive writing can be found in:

Advertising Opinion and editorial pieces Reviews Job applications

The bike trail is the glittering gem of Happyville’s new infrastructure. It winds through sixty-two miles of lush landscape, dotted by clean and convenient facilities. If you haven’t experienced the Happyville Bike Trail yet, ditch your car and head outside! Could life in Happyville get any more idyllic?

A number of statements in this paragraph are opinion rather than fact: that the bike trail is a glittering gem, that the facilities are clean and convenient, and that life in Happyville is idyllic. Clearly, the author’s aim here is to use these depictions to persuade readers to use the bike trail.

Narrative Writing

The purpose of narrative writing is to tell a story, whether that story is real or imaginary. Pieces in a narrative style will have characters, and through the narrative, the reader learns what happens to them. Narrative writing can also include dialogue.

Narrative writing can be found in:

All types of fiction (e.g., novels, short stories, novellas) Poetry Biographies Human interest stories Anecdotes

As I cycled down the trail, I heard children giggling and whooping just around the bend. I crested a small hill and coasted down the curving path until I found the source of the noise. Three little girls sat in the grass by a big oak tree. They were startled to see me, and I smiled kindly to put them at ease.

“Whatcha doing?” I asked.

“Nothing,” they chirped in unison.

In this passage, the author sets the scene on the bike trail from his or her own point of view (which is referred to as narrating in the first person). Using both description and dialogue, the story that takes place is laid out in chronological order.

Understanding Your Purpose Empowers Your Writing

Simply puzzling out which of these four types of writing best suits your purpose and adhering to it can help you write more efficiently and effectively.

To summarize:

• Expository writing sets forth facts. You can find it in textbooks, journalism (except opinion or editorial articles), business writing, technical writing, essays, and instructions.
• Descriptive writing evokes images through rich description. You can find it in fiction, poetry, journal writing, and advertising.
• Persuasive writing aims to sway the reader toward the author’s point of view. It is used heavily in advertising, and can also be found in opinion and editorial pieces, reviews, and job applications.
• Narrative writing tells a story. It can be found in fiction, poetry, biographies, human interest stories, and anecdotes.

Republican Primary Candidates Grammar Power Rankings

At Grammarly, we believe that every time we write, we make a statement. Technology encourages fast-paced typing and textspeak—and while we don’t think that’s always bad—we do think it can fuel misconceptions and get out of hand.

In the interest of fun and a little gamesmanship, we’ve started a series of studies to award Grammar Power Rankings to different categories of commenters across the web. After a quick look at NFL and MLB fans, we’ve decided to focus on the upcoming presidential race, starting with the Republicans (who begin their GOP primary debates this week).

Stay tuned for a potential study about Democratic candidates’ supporters in the near future. For now, check out this infographic for the results and methodology from the GOP study:

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Please attribute this infographic to https://www.grammarly.com/grammar-check.

Methodology

We began by taking a large sample of Facebook comments containing at least fifteen words from each candidate’s official page. Next, we created a set of guidelines to help limit (as much as possible) the subjectivity of categorizing the comments as positive or negative. Since the point of the study was to analyze the writing of each candidate’s supporters, we considered only obviously positive or neutral comments. Obviously negative or critical comments, as well as ambiguous or borderline negative comments, were disqualified.

We then randomly selected two hundred fifty of these positive and neutral comments to analyze for each candidate. Using Grammarly, we identified the errors in the comments, which were then verified and tallied by a team of live proofreaders. For the purposes of this study, we counted only black-and-white mistakes such as misspellings, wrong and missing punctuation, misused or missing words, and subject-verb disagreement. We ignored stylistic variations such as the use of common slang words, serial comma usage, and the use of numerals instead of spelled-out numbers.

Finally, we calculated the average number of mistakes per one hundred words by dividing the total word count of the comments by the total number of mistakes for each candidate.

 

Why You Should Take a Vacation, Even If You’re Busy

“I hate vacation,” said no one ever. So why are we so bad at taking time off? North Americans in particular are notorious for rarely taking time off work. A study by Expedia found that each year workers in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico take twelve, fifteen, and twelve days off respectively, while Europeans take between twenty and thirty days off.

Granted, employers in North America tend to offer significantly less vacation time than European ones, but workers often don’t even take all the time they’re entitled to, and that’s bad. Reasons vary—we’re too busy, we feel guilty, our bosses make it hard—but the truth is that you’re not doing yourself (or your employer) any favors by skipping vacations. Read on to find out why you need to step away from the office and relax for a little while.

Skipping Vacation Is Bad for Your Health

Research suggests that men who don’t take vacations are 30 percent more likely to have a heart attack than those who do. Women who don’t take vacations are 50 percent more likely to have a heart attack than women who do.

Taking a vacation, on the other hand, can reduce stress and associated symptoms like sleeplessness, fatigue, and headaches. But—and this is an important but—a poorly planned vacation can leave you more stressed than you started. Plan thoroughly. Make sure you request the time off well in advance of your trip. And don’t forget to warn your colleagues that you’ll be out! They’ll appreciate the heads up, as long as you don’t brag too much.

Vacations Make You More Productive

Four in ten American workers say that even though their employer supports time off, they’re just too busy to take it. The irony, of course, is that taking a vacation actually makes you more productive. As much as we like to pretend otherwise, mental resources are finite. Once in a while, you have to step away and replenish those resources if you want to continue doing great work. According to the New York Times, an internal study by the accounting firm Ernst & Young found that “for each additional 10 hours of vacation employees took, their year-end performance ratings from supervisors (on a scale of one to five) improved by 8 percent.”

So don’t feel guilty about taking your hard-earned vacation days. Your performance will be better, not worse.

Vacations Are Good for Your Personal Life

Traveling opens you up to new cultures and perspectives. Even if you’re staying local, relaxing with a good book can be its own kind of new experience.

But time off is also important for keeping your relationships healthy. According to one survey, 43 percent of American workers dedicate less than twenty hours a week to family time. But the majority of the households surveyed who plan out their time off are happier than those who don’t. Even if you can’t take everybody on an extravagant adventure in a faraway land, there’s probably plenty to do close to home. What about a family bike ride? Why not explore that odd little museum downtown that’s only open on Wednesdays at 10 a.m.? In the end, it’s the together time that counts.

Do you take as much time off as you’d like to? Tell us about your favorite ways to relax and recharge in the comment section below.

Empower Your Writing: Transform the Passive Voice

Tell a writer that he should avoid the passive voice in writing, and he’ll usually agree – although the passive voice is perfectly acceptable grammatically.

Most writers know that the sentence, “The cow jumped over the moon” is better than “The moon was jumped over by the cow.” However, if you check a few documents with Grammarly’s Add-in for Microsoft Office Suite, you’ll see that this ghost continues to haunt. Even veteran writers have a problem with the passive voice on occasion.

But, why?

Active voice involves writing that jumps off a page and immediately grabs a reader’s interest. Let’s look at a breakdown of passive vs. active voice (and how to switch between the two) for a better understanding:

What is an Active Sentence? Active sentences have a subject that directly performs the action of the sentence. For example: “He washed the dishes.” The subject of the sentence, the pronoun “he,” directly performs the action, “washed.”

What is a Passive Sentence? Passive sentences switch the direct object and the subject, allowing the subject to receive an action passively. For example: “The dishes were washed by him.” Here, the pronoun, “him,” takes a back seat to the target of the sentence. It is also important to notice that the verb, “washed,” got a bit longer. It turned into “were washed.” File this away in your mind for a moment. Sentence length and complexity are lures that often hook us into the regular use of passive voice.

What are “To Be” Verbs? Many times, it is the “to be” verb that alerts us to a passive voice sentence. Watch out for phrases like “have been,” “will have,” and “are being.” Although not universally the case, they often point to the use of passive voice in a sentence.

Why Use Active Voice? Active voice makes our writing more exciting and energetic. It snags a reader quickly and encourages him to continue reading. Active voice sentences are also easier to read, so using active voice broadens your audience. Finally, passive sentences are usually wordy. Active voice provides us with succinct and precise writing.

How Do You Change a Sentence from Passive to Active? Once you’ve spotted a passive sentence, changing it to active is fairly easy. Turn the direct object of the sentence into the subject. Change the form of the verb used in the sentence, and then remove any unneeded prepositional phrases, simply by removing the preposition.

Passive sentence: Yesterday, the job was completed by her.

Make “her/she” the subject, and move the object, “job.” Then, discard the preposition “by,” and move “yesterday.”

Active sentence: She completed the job yesterday.

Passive sentences can be far more complex, but the basic solution to transforming them into active voice is the same.

The Trap: Sentence complexity is the basic trap that usually locks our writing into passive voice. Often our sentences need to be complex, due to a complicated thought or a stylistic choice. However, the passives can slip in whenever complexity becomes a necessity.

Don’t make the mistake of thinking that active sentences have to be simple. They do not. This insidious illusion often summons the passive voice. Let’s look at a complex sentence expressed in passive voice that can be changed to active.

Complex passive sentence: Before they left for the theatre, a pearl necklace with silver beads was given to Sally by her husband Joe.

Using the simple solution of switching the direct object and the subject works here too. Remember to remove the unnecessary preposition, “by.” The only extra step involves moving around the clauses, and this sentence becomes active.

Complex active sentence: Joe gave his wife, Sally, a pearl necklace with silver beads before they left for the theatre.

If you want much more immediate and dynamic writing, it is best to use active voice. Aside from academic use, passive voice rarely makes for sparkling prose.

How do you insure that your writing falls into the active category? The solution is simple: active voice has to become a habit. Write with it every day, and do so consciously. Whenever you see a passive sentence slip into your writing, change it to active. Soon you’ll find that your passive sentences begin to fade as your active voice naturally emerges.

What’s the Most Irritating, Enraging Work Communication Habit?

Ah, March Madness. Every year, this season reminds college basketball lovers to root for the underdog, try their hand at predicting tournament results, and believe in their team. Similarly, our March MADness tournament to choose the worst work habit has had some upsets, a few underdogs, and ultimately, one champion. If you voted in one or more of the polls, thank you! Your voice has been heard. Here are the highlights of the search for the worst office pet peeve.

The Conference Champs

If you recall, we originally had four conferences defining the common areas where your coworkers may annoy you: work chat, email, phone calls, and in person. We had some tough competitions both in the first round and in the Not-So-Sweet 16 between these contenders, but here were the worst pet peeves for each medium.

The Worst Chat Crime: Emoji Overload

��������☠️ These people like to send a string of seemingly useless emojis in work chat, especially in public channels. While they may think it’s cute, it actually shows they have nothing to say.

The Worst Email Fail: Autonotification Email Hell

Autonotifications are sent automatically when someone updates a task, project, or chat. In the best-case scenario, these autonotifications can be batched, but usually your inbox gets swamped by minor updates to various channels. Is it really necessary to know that someone left a chat? Rarely.

The Worst Call Catastrophe: Background Noise Nuisances

We’ve all joined a call where the other participants sounded like they were either in an echo chamber, a wind tunnel, or the middle of Times Square. Nobody likes those calls, and nobody likes distracting background noise.

The Worst IRL Irritation: “Well, actually . . .”

This phrase is the hallmark of a know-it-all. With a penchant for perfection and an inability to filter relevant details from irrelevant ones, these people never miss an opportunity to correct or clarify themselves and others.

The Ultimate Champion: Background Noise

According to our followers, background noise on phone or video calls is the worst work communication offense. And we have to admit, it’s pretty obnoxious to hear microphone feedback, talking, crunching, beeping, traffic, or much of anything on a call.

Now that we’ve identified the worst office crime, where do we go from here? Check back in the coming weeks and months to learn how to avoid background noise, CC faux pas, and other behaviors our followers have identified as obnoxious.

What do you think of this champion? Let us know your thoughts (and feelings) in the comments below.

Reddit Politics Writing Breakdown: The Right and Left Are Closer Than You Think

When it comes to language, it turns out that conservatives and liberals are more alike than you might think. The intrepid Grammarly team delved into the unfiltered political maelstrom on Reddit to get a look at how the Trump and Clinton subreddit communities write when they discuss the 2016 U.S. presidential election online. We used the Grammarly app’s powerful algorithms and new political correctness checks to find out not only how many spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors each camp made but also how often the software flagged their language as politically incorrect.

#NoFilter

In 2015, we took a lighthearted look at the presidential primaries, ranking the leading candidates by how well their supporters wrote about them on the candidates’ official Facebook pages. Now that Clinton and Trump have been officially nominated by their respective parties, we decided to peer into a less moderated community where the members, not the campaigns, direct the conversation. The differences were stark. For one thing, Redditors write significantly better than Facebook users. On Facebook, Hillary Clinton’s supporters made 6.3 errors per 100 words; Trump’s were twice as error-prone at 12.6. By contrast, Clinton’s Reddit supporters made just 1.82 errors per 100 words with Trump’s following close behind at 2.10.

In an unfiltered setting, Trump supporters weren’t daunted by having to add a dollar to the virtual swear jar. They used profanity 135% more often than Clinton’s supporters. Grammarly’s soon-to-be-released political correctness checks for people who want to make their writing more inclusive also got a workout in r/The_Donald. These checks analyze text for language that may be considered sexist, racist, ableist, or non-inclusive in other ways. Trump’s supporters used politically incorrect terms 88% more often than Clinton’s.

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Trump’s and Clinton’s Reddit Supporters Are More Alike Than Different

As we analyzed the data, one surprising discovery emerged—Trump and Clinton supporters share much in common. Not only do both sides write well, but they also care about similar issues. Foreign policy ranked as the number one topic for the Clinton subreddit and came in at number two for Trump. Both sides frequently asked the question “Who’s supporting him/her?” and both thought that the other candidate could bring about “America’s demise.” Clinton supporters see Trump’s campaign as “shameful” and “offensive,” while Trump supporters believe Clinton to be “crooked” and “corrupt.”

Trump supporters were unique in one aspect: they’ve created their own lingo. “Cuck-” was an oft-used prefix (Cuckington Post, Cuckbook, CuckKaine). MAGA (an acronym for Trump’s ubiquitous “Make America Great Again” slogan) was the fourth most commonly repeated bit of jargon. Even Pokemon played a role. Coming in third was Trigglypuff, a play on the slumber-inducing Pokemon, Jigglypuff, and the word “trigger,” used in the context of something with the potential to cause anxiety. (Example: “She should pick Trigglypuff as running mate. Quality attracts quality.”)

Commonly Confused Words

Redditors stumbled on some common English language mistakes, mixing up words like then and than and using the wrong form of too or to. They struggled with frequently confused compound words like everyday/every day and anymore/any more. The Grammarly blog could help them (or anyone else) amp up their writing skills. Here are just a few recommendations:

• Apostrophe Mistakes
• Then / Than
• Too / To
• Everyday / Every Day
• Anymore / Any More

Although our study is a playful take on the language people use in discussion forums like Reddit, written communication skills will always be essential to how we understand each other in the online world. Clear communication is even more important when the political stakes are high, as they are in an election year. By keeping their writing mistakes to a minimum, Redditors seem to be on the right track.

Top 30 Commonly Confused Words in English

Everyone knows the problem with spell-check: your word might be spelled right, but it may be the wrong word. English is full of confusing words that sound alike but are spelled differently. It’s also full of words that share similar (but not identical) meanings that are easy to misuse. Below are some of the most commonly confused and misused words in English.

Here’s a tip: Looking for a specific pair of commonly confused words on this page? Use ctrl+F or command+F to search the page quickly.

Advice/Advise Advice is a noun: Chester gave Posey good advice. Advise is a verb: Chester advised Posey to avoid the questionable chicken salad.

Affect/Effect Affect is usually a verb: Chester’s humming affected Posey’s ability to concentrate. Effect is usually a noun: Chester was sorry for the effect his humming had. If you find yourself stumped about which one to use in a sentence, try substituting the word “alter” or “result.” If “alter” fits (Chester’s humming altered Posey’s ability to concentrate), use affect. If “result” fits (Chester was sorry for the result his humming had), use effect.

Among/Amongst Among is the preferred and most common variant of this word in American English. Amongst is more common in British English. Neither version is wrong, but amongst may seem fussy to American readers.

Among/Between Among expresses a collective or loose relationship of several items: Chester found a letter hidden among the papers on the desk. Between expresses the relationship of one thing to another thing or to many other things: Posey spent all day carrying messages between Chester and the other students. The idea that between can be used only when talking about two things is a myth—it’s perfectly correct to use between if you are talking about multiple binary relationships.

Assure/Ensure/Insure Assure means to tell someone that something will definitely happen or is definitely true: Posey assured Chester that no one would cheat at Bingo. Ensure means to guarantee or make sure of something: Posey took steps to ensure that no one cheated at Bingo. Insure means to take out an insurance policy: Posey was glad the Bingo hall was insured against damage caused by rowdy Bingo players.

Breath/Breathe Breath is a noun; it’s the air that goes in and out of your lungs: Chester held his breath while Posey skateboarded down the stairs. Breathe is a verb; it means to exhale or inhale: After Posey’s spectacular landing, Chester had to remind himself to breathe again.

Capital/Capitol Capital has several meanings. It can refer to an uppercase letter, money, or a city where a seat of government is located: Chester visited Brasίlia, the capital of Brazil. Capitol means the building where a legislature meets: Posey visited the cafe in the basement of the capitol after watching a bill become a law.

Complement/Compliment A complement is something that completes something else. It’s often used to describe things that go well together: Chester’s lime green boots were a perfect complement to his jacket. A compliment is a nice thing to say: Posey received many compliments on her purple fedora.

Disinterested/Uninterested Disinterested means impartial: A panel of disinterested judges who had never met the contestants before judged the singing contest. Uninterested means bored or not wanting to be involved with something: Posey was uninterested in attending Chester’s singing class.

Defence/Defense Defense is standard in American English. Defence is found mainly in British English.

Emigrate/Immigrate Emigrate means to move away from a city or country to live somewhere else: Chester’s grandfather emigrated from Canada sixty years ago. Immigrate means to move into a country from somewhere else: Posey’s sister immigrated to Ireland in 2004.

E.g./I.e. These two Latin abbreviations are often mixed up, but e.g. means “for example,” while i.e. means “that is.”

Empathy/Sympathy Empathy is the ability to understand another person’s perspective or feelings. Sympathy is a feeling of sorrow for someone else’s suffering. A sympathizer is someone who agrees with a particular ideal or cause.

Farther/Further Farther refers to physical distance: Posey can run farther than Chester. Further refers to metaphorical distance: Chester is further away from finishing his project than Posey is.

Flaunt/Flout Flaunt means to show off: Chester flaunted his stylish new outfit. Flout means to defy, especially in a way that shows scorn: Posey flouted the business-casual dress code by wearing a tiara and flip-flops.

Gaff/Gaffe A gaff is a type of spear or hook with a long handle: Chester completed his sailor costume with a gaff borrowed from his uncle’s fishing boat. A gaffe is a faux pas or social misstep: Posey made a gaffe when she accidentally called Chester by the wrong name.

Gray/Grey Gray is the standard American English spelling. Grey is the standard British English spelling.

Historic/Historical Historic means famous, important, and influential: Chester visited the beach in Kitty Hawk where the Wright brothers made their historic first airplane flight. Historical means related to history: Posey donned a historical bonnet for the renaissance fair.

Imply/Infer Imply means to hint at something without saying it directly: Chester implied that Posey was in trouble, but he wouldn’t tell her why. Infer means to deduce something that hasn’t been stated directly: Posey inferred that Chester was nervous about something from the way he kept looking over his shoulder.

It’s/Its It’s is a contraction of “it is”: Posey needs to pack for her trip because it’s only two days away. Its is a possessive pronoun that means “belonging to it”: Chester is obsessed with both the book and its author.

Lay/Lie To lay means to put or to place. One way to remember this is that there is an a in both to lay and to place: Posey will lay out her outfit before she goes to bed. To lie means to recline. One way to remember this is that there is an e in both to lie and to recline: Chester will lie down for a nap. Be careful, though. The past tense of to lay is laid: Posey laid out her outfit. The past tense of to lie is lay: Chester lay down for a nap over an hour ago.

Lead/Led Lead, when it rhymes with “bed,” refers to a type of metal: Posey wore a lead apron while the dentist X-rayed her teeth. Led is the past tense of the verb to lead, which means to guide or to be first: Chester led the way.

Learned/Learnt Learned is standard in American English. Learnt is standard in British English.

Loose/Lose Loose is usually an adjective: Posey discovered that the cows were loose. Lose is always a verb. It means to misplace something or to be unvictorious in a game or contest: Chester was careful not to lose his ticket.

Principal/Principle Principal can be a noun or adjective. As a noun, it refers to the person in charge of a school or organization: Posey was called into the principal’s office. As an adjective, it means most important: The principal reason for this meeting is to brainstorm ideas for the theme of Chester’s birthday party. A principle (always a noun) is a firmly held belief or ideal: Posey doesn’t like surprise parties as a matter of principle.

Inquiry/Enquiry Inquiry and enquiry both mean “a request for information.” Inquiry is the standard American English spelling. Enquiry is the British spelling.

Stationary/Stationery Stationary means unmoving: The revolving door remained stationary because Posey was pushing on it the wrong way. Stationery refers to letter writing materials and especially to high quality paper: Chester printed his résumé on his best stationery.

Than/Then Than is used for comparisons: Posey runs faster than Chester. Then is used to indicate time or sequence: Posey took off running, and then Chester came along and finished her breakfast.

Their/There/They’re Their is the possessive form of “they”: Chester and Posey took their time. There indicates a place: It took them an hour to get there. They’re is a contraction of “they are”: Are Chester and Posey coming? They’re almost here.

To/Too To is a preposition that can indicate direction: Posey walked to school. She said hello to Chester when she saw him. To is also used in the infinitive form of verbs: Chester waited until the last minute to do his homework. Too is used as an intensifier, and also means “also”: Posey waited too long to do her homework, too.

Toward/Towards Toward is standard in American English. Towards is standard in British English.

Who’s/Whose Who’s is a contraction of “who is”: Who’s calling Chester at this hour? Whose is a possessive pronoun that means “belonging to [someone]”: Chester, whose phone hadn’t stopped ringing all morning, barely ate anything for breakfast.

How Do I Show Emphasis in a Sentence

If you need to emphasize a word or a particular fact in a sentence, you can use italics to stress it. That said, italics and other font changes lose their impact if overused. It is best to use such devices sparingly and rely on strong writing and strategic word placement to get your point across.

Before the advent of word processing, it was common to underline words to show emphasis. You can still use underlining in your writing and be correct.

Why did you give Sara the sandwich with mustard on it? That was Casey’s sandwich.

Italics, however, are the more current—and more elegant—way to emphasize a word or phrase.

There are fewer than five thousand Black Rhinos left on the African continent today.

At last, he saw the face under the cloak’s hood. It was her.

Italics can be useful to emphasize a few words at a time and can be especially helpful if a single word is stressed, as in the examples above. But when overused, too many font changes can confuse and overwhelm the reader; in the world of the written word, it is “shock and awe.”

Emphasis Through Strategic Word or Clause Placement

When your aim is to point the reader toward key facts and phrases, using introductory adverbs and adverb phrases can be very effective. Some examples of these are especially, particularly, most importantly, and above all. Other adverbs work well in the introductory position too. In the example below, you will see what a difference word position can make in a sentence: the first iteration sounds almost casual in tone compared to the second.

He emerged from the vanguard unscathed, remarkably.

Remarkably, he emerged from the vanguard unscathed.

Repetition of a phrase can also have a compelling effect in your writing, rhythmically underscoring the essence of your key message.

How could he ask which of them I truly loved? It was him. It had always been him.

Another method of emphasis in a series of sentences is the placement of a short, emphatic sentence to “punctuate” a crucial point and even add an element of drama.

Jim decided to find out if playing frisbee in a glass factory was a bad idea. It was.

Use With Caution: Boldface, Capitals, and Exclamation Marks

Boldface fonts can be used sparsely to draw attention to words or short phrases, and are most often seen in business writing. Using boldface for emphasis is not appropriate for academic writing.

Smoking is not permitted in the workplace.

A draft must be submitted three days before the publication deadline.

“All caps” writing is rarely warranted, and if you use capitals too often, your paragraphs will appear silly and chaotic. In electronic communications, it can even be perceived as shouting.

A draft must be submitted THREE DAYS BEFORE THE PUBLICATION DEADLINE.

Some people may actually be offended by the style of the above example. Therefore, use all capitals very sparingly (and never in academic writing).

“BE CAREFUL!” I cried.

Similarly, exclamation marks certainly have a place in English writing, but they are too often abused. They can be used effectively in fiction and informal writing, but you should avoid them in business and academic writing. Using an exclamation point implies an outcry or extreme excitement, and should be reserved for unique circumstances.

The exit is to your right!

Off with his head!

A final note about exclamation points: when you do use them, remember that you need only one of them. Not two, not five, not seven. One.

Here’s Your Ultimate Sunday Night De-Stress Playlist

There’s a gentle balancing act in calibrating a mellow playlist, say for the Sunday evening before a hectic workweek.

Cue up too many happy songs and the result can feel saccharine. Too many sad ones will just leave you depressed. Jams that get you moving are fun when you’re going out, but tonight you’re staying in. Then again, you need something with a pulse: you’re not winding down for bed quite yet.

As the sun sets on your weekend and you curl up, perhaps to read or do a little writing, we’ve got you covered. Here’s our take on a relaxing Sunday night playlist.

Start with an old-timey vibe

What says “It’s okay, you’re right where you’re supposed to be” more plainly than the sun-dappled voice of Van Morrison?

Classics like “Sweet Thing” kindly refrain from jerking your attention or ensorcelling your dancing shoes, but the track’s layered strings reward attentive listening, if that’s your thing.

What follows is a meandering instrumental cut by Willie West. Instrumentals will be a recurring theme on this playlist. That’s because it’s often easier to read or write when the part of your brain that handles words isn’t also being barraged with lyrics.

The tale of Donnie & Joe Emerson is a heartening one for creative dreamers. The young Washington farm boys’ self-produced 1979 album was initially an expensive flop. But when it was rediscovered in 2008, it became critically lauded—and was eventually reprinted.

Rounding out our old-school quartet is Billy Fury:

The track’s playful bassline again stops short of forcing you to dance, but it might just put a smile on your face.

Zone out

Shifting gears, the warm samples of this Land of the Loops mix chart our path toward more electronic fare. It’s a pleasant balance of placid and wistful that leaves plenty of room for the mind to drift.

There’s just one word for this jam by English producer Forest Swords: hypnotic. Your humble blogger is frequently known to write with his phone in airplane mode and a Forest Swords record like Dagger Paths or Fjree Feather on the turntable.

Hewing still to instrumentals, we turn next to a recent collaboration by Louisiana producers Suicideyear and Outthepound. Though he’s known for working with rappers, Suicideyear’s careful blends of synth and 808 are often just right to quiet a restless mind.

We conclude our instrumental run with post-rock majesty. This Will Destroy You’s Young Mountain was recently reissued for the album’s tenth anniversary, and patiently building tracks like “Happiness: We’re All In It Together” hold up beautifully.

Transcend

The haunting voice of the late Patricia Keenan shepherds us into the final movement of our playlist. A departure from Broadcast’s noisier tunes, “Tears in the Typing Pool” is a memorable work of understated sadness.

After two decades apart, the English shoegaze outfit Slowdive reunited in 2014, and is poised to release a new album this May. The gently swelling teaser single, “Sugar for the Pill,” is the kind of song to carry you through whatever tribulations Monday might hold.

Colleen Green knows a thing or two about anxious nerves, as evidenced in tracks like “Deeper Than Love,” her arresting meditation on a fear of intimacy. That makes the conclusion to her 2015 album, I Want to Grow Up, all the more remarkable: “Whatever I Want” finds Green feeling unencumbered, just like you want on a Sunday night.

Finally, before she became the guitarist for the house band on Late Night with Seth Meyers, Marnie Stern was known for shredding.

Stern’s resplendent fingerwork is in effect on “The Things You Notice,” a lovely paean that leaves us ready to take on the workweek.

6 Fictional Presidents Who Were Great Communicators

Happy Presidents’ Day! On this day when the United States honors their commander in chief, we thought it would be fun to look at the fictional portrayals of this office throughout pop culture history. We’ve found that many presidents from books, television, and film were excellent orators, and some may have surpassed even the most loquacious POTUS of their age. Here are some of our favorites, and we want to hear yours in the comments.

1 President Jed Bartlett

President Bartlett will always have a warm place in the American television universe as a warm, reasoned leader. Aaron Sorkin, creator of The West Wing, created the “walk and talk,” which President Bartlett executed beautifully throughout the series. With Sam Seaborn’s help, he also was a powerhouse of an orator, with several powerful addresses to the (fake) American people on the importance of democratic freedoms.

2 President Douglass Dilman

via GIPHY

You can’t argue with James Earl Jones’s powers of speech, and his powerful portrayal of the first (fictional) black president is powerful. The scene in which his character has his first press conference is especially powerful, and shows the understated power of President Dilman’s oration.

3 President Mackenzie Allen

Who doesn’t love a good presidential drama (that’s heavy on the drama)? The first (fictional) female president was also a very direct, occasionally blunt straight shooter.. Geena Davis’s no-nonsense approach to communication should be a model for straight-talkers everywhere.

4 President Thomas J. Whitmore

This speech has become so famous with sci-fi fans that its only near rival is a similar speech from Armageddon, which pales in comparison to President Whitmore’s gravitas. Although the president is not the main focus of Independence Day, he is quite the motivator.

5 President Francis Underwood

via GIPHY

Although Kevin Spacey’s president in House of Cards is undoubtedly diabolical, he’s also great at communicating with an audience. Whether he’s making a speech to accept a presidency he wasn’t elected to or breaking the fourth wall to address his Netflix viewers, President Underwood can command a room.

6 President David Palmer

President Palmer’s voice is one of the most authoritative on this list, and his question, “Is my voice shaking?”, will give you chills. Although 24 skews dramatic, the level of “candor and clarity” Palmer keeps throughout the series is impressive.

Who are your favorite fictional world leaders? Post your favorites in the comments below.

What Kind of Writing Do You Use at the Office?

Persons vs. People vs. Peoples—What’s the Difference?

Most of the time, people is the correct word to choose as a plural for person. Persons is archaic, and it is safe to avoid using it, except in legal writing, which has its own traditional language. Peoples is only necessary when you refer to distinct ethnic groups (for example, within the same region).

“People” vs. “Persons” as Plurals

Person and people both derive from Latin, but from different words. Person came from persona, which first meant “mask,” like that worn by an actor, but eventually came to mean “an individual human.” People, on the other hand, came from populus, which means “the people” in the sense of a group from the same nation, community, or ethnic group.

There was a time in history when it was put forward that grammatically, persons should be the preferred plural any time more than one person was referred to as a countable noun, and people should be preferred for uncountable nouns. That practice did not become standard, and nowadays, the plural persons is only considered correct in legal contexts and, occasionally, when deliberately referring to humans individually rather than collectively.

Eighty people came to my Star Wars costume party on May the fourth.

Six persons came dressed as either Princess Leia or Darth Vader, but the rest of the people were all wookies. (Acceptable because the persons’ individual choices are relevant to the context.)

Six people came dressed as either Princess Leia or Darth Vader, but the rest of the people were all wookies. (Equally acceptable)

More people should recycle their paper to save trees.

Why don’t more people realize that capybaras are rodents?

Sixteen people protested on the White House lawn this Saturday.

”Persons” or “People” in Formal Legal Writing

In the legal world, including law enforcement, persons is used regularly. It is helpful because nothing is collective where the law is concerned; individuals are prosecuted, not groups. Some legal expressions, such as persons of interest and missing persons, reflect this grammatical preference. Some people use persons in writing that is legal-sounding, but not strictly legal by definition, such as rules and public notices.

Any person or persons vandalizing courthouse property will be fined.

There are two persons of interest being questioned for the murder of John Doe.

The Douglas County Police Department has seventeen open missing persons cases.

No more than six persons can occupy the hot tub at any one time.

One political context in which persons is correct is in the expression displaced persons.

Visas will be expedited for refugees and displaced persons.

Using persons outside of legal contexts can sound unnecessarily affected. Avoid it completely in business contexts.

To the persons who stole my muffins from the break room: I will be avenged. (A bit silly, given the offense.)

Persons who retain our services will be charged a monthly fee.

Those who retain our services will be charged a monthly fee.

“People” vs. “Peoples” for Ethnic Groups and Nationalities

When you refer to the people of a single ethnic group or nationality, always use the word people.

The people of China no longer need to abide by the one-child policy.

Emmanuel Macron was elected by the people of France on May 7, 2017.

“We here highly resolve that government of the people, for the people, and by the people will not perish from the earth.” (Abraham Lincoln)

Peoples is only used in cases when it is necessary to distinguish between ethnic groups within the same geographical or cultural context.

The Israeli and Palestinian peoples have long been at war.

The peoples of the world practice a wide variety of religions.

“Persons,” “People,” or “Peoples”?

The plural of person should be people in the vast majority of contexts, although legalese uses the plural persons. Peoples should be reserved for instances where you are referring to more than one distinct ethnic group.

Where Do You Write for Work?

11 More Experts on How to Write Well This Year

In theory, writing is not hard labor. It’s less backbreaking than laying bricks all day, for instance. And compared to the average herpetologist, most writers’ workplaces involve far fewer smelly rooms full of snakes. For that, we should be grateful.

Still, writing is hard work. And that’s just as true for vaunted authors with numerous books, awards, and honorary degrees to their credit as it is for newcomers who only recently resolved to hammer out more words each week. If any of that sounds like you—if you’re looking to step up that content game—we have help, in the form of recent pointers and perspectives from veteran writers.

1 Read, write, rinse, repeat.

This battle-tested rule stands true whether you’re a longform magazine writer or a horror novelist. Asked how a newcomer can perfect the craft, the National Book Award–winning author and journalist Ta-Nehisi Coates tweeted this response:

“Reading. Then writing. Rinsing. Repeating. Only way. Not even snarking. It really is.” https://twitter.com/tanehisicoates/status/814949934470483968

Be relentless.

2 Schedule meetings with yourself.

It’s easy to daydream about things you’d like to write, but sometimes harder to carve out time each day to, you know, actually write them. When writing the critically acclaimed Don’t Think Twice, comic Mike Birbiglia says he struggled with procrastination:

I had the movie in my head, but I wasn’t writing it. But I noticed this trend in my life, which was that I was showing up to lunch meetings or business meetings, but I wasn’t showing up to meet myself. So I wrote a note next to my bed — this is so corny, but I wrote, “Mike! You have an appointment at Café Pedlar at 7 a.m. with your mind!” It’s so corny, and I would show up! I never didn’t show up, and I wrote this movie [in] spurts of essentially three hours, like I’d write from 7 a.m. to 10 a.m., and the reason why I would do that is because I was essentially barely awake. Because I feel like that moment, at 7 to 10 a.m., you’re not afraid of the world yet.

3 Have a plan.

For John McPhee, the prolific author, octogenarian, and veritable institution at The New Yorker, writing hinges on structure: taking the various puzzle pieces floating around in one’s mind and notes, and figuring out in what order to arrange them. (A puzzle becomes much easier to assemble when you know what it’s a picture of, after all.)

In crafting an outline, McPhee does not save the ending for last. Whether the piece will be five thousand words or five thousand sentences, he decides on his ending almost as soon as he’s settled on a lead sentence. Still, he concedes the work that ensues in between is, alas, rarely simple:

Almost always there is considerable tension between chronology and theme, and chronology traditionally wins. The narrative wants to move from point to point through time, while topics that have arisen now and again across someone’s life cry out to be collected. They want to draw themselves together in a single body, in the way that salt does underground. But chronology usually dominates. As themes prove inconvenient, you find some way to tuck them in.

We’ll come back to McPhee in a moment.

4 “Don’t be trapped by your limits. Get creative.” —Eric Heisserer

Screenwriter Eric Heisserer spent years slogging through drafts of a script for the film Arrival on spec before finding the right backers. One struggle was depicting how the aliens in his film would communicate; he later recalled of this frustration: “My omnipresent self-critic mocked me for running out of words to describe actual language.”

Then his wife had the brilliant idea to just include rough sketches of alien logograms right in the script—But Heisserer soon discovered no screenwriting software at the time could include graphics. Ultimately he settled on a work-around that involved re-inserting the images each time a revised draft went out. It wasn’t pretty, but it worked.

5 It’s okay to take breaks.

Not everyone is cut out to write entire chapters in a single sitting. “I think if you work beyond four hours it goes bad,” novelist Zadie Smith recently remarked.

In other words, don’t stress if your entire opus doesn’t come pouring out of your fingertips the moment you sit down at the keyboard. Even just getting to 800 words, Smith says, “feels like a champion day.”

6 Back your work up.

Laptops disappear. Hard drives crash. Buildings sometimes burn—leaving determined writers to charge past firefighters into the blazes to rescue their finished novels.

“THIS IS WHY WE DO CLOUD STORAGE, PEOPLE” https://twitter.com/FutureBoy/status/776531179059093505

It’s worth taking precautions to make sure, whatever else might go wrong, that your work survives intact.

7 Take your lumps, and keep at it.

Long before he was awarded a MacArthur “Genius Grant,” novelist Junot Díaz labored over a series of short stories for his peers in a grad-school workshop. His first effort there endured the kind of savage reviews that sometimes compel people to change professions:

Workshop rolls around and I still remember the feeling on my face as I watched my story get gutted. I’d caught beatdowns before, but this one was a graduate workshop beatdown and I felt those lumps for days. Sure, there was some mild praise about the setting and a few of my lines got checkmarks next to them, but the overwhelming reaction was negative.

Díaz stuck with it, inhaling huge volumes of short fiction each day, and persisting even after his second attempt met tepid responses. Battling through it all, Díaz discovered something about himself as a writer—something that stayed with him well through the publication of his first book.

8 Don’t wait for anyone to give you permission.

Anyone can be a writer. But before she was a Pulitzer-winning novelist, most recently grinding out the 736-page Barkskins, this would’ve been a surprise to Annie Proulx, as she once told The Paris Review:

I never thought of myself as a writer. I only backed into it through having to make a living. And then I discovered that I could actually do it. I thought there was some arcane fellowship that you knew at birth that you had to belong to in order to be a writer.

Don’t wait. Start now.

9 Be good to yourself.

Even wildly popular novelists who start working before 6 a.m. (looking at you, J.K. Rowling) aren’t above writing from the comfort of bed:

“Wake up, drag the laptop into bed and get to work. There’s really no need for formal attire.” https://twitter.com/jk_rowling/status/811579300021489664

Taking care of yourself doesn’t just mean finding the coziest place to operate, though. Daily exercise is a part of the process many writers swear by. From Haruki Murakami to Joyce Carol Oates, many specifically advocate running to help untangle the writerly knots of the mind.

10 Forgive yourself when it doesn’t come easy.

Science writer Elizabeth Kolbert says her latest book, The Sixth Extinction, was at times painful to work on: “I thought it was going to do me in, at points. It just wasn’t coming together.”

That a longtime journalist of Kolbert’s caliber still feels tested by the craft should hearten anyone who’s struggling to keep up with its attendant pressures and deadlines.

While piecing together the story was an arduous, years-long trek that took her everywhere from the Great Barrier Reef to a cloud forest in the Andes, Kolbert’s efforts ultimately paid off. Despite being “way overdue,” when it was finally done, the book went on to win the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction.

11 Know when to stop.

A bonus from the aforementioned John McPhee, who plans his endings from the outset: You have to not only finish the piece but also conclude the process around it. Editing, it’s sometimes said, is the art of knowing when to stop tinkering.

People often ask how I know when I’m done—not just when I’ve come to the end, but in all the drafts and revisions and substitutions of one word for another how do I know there is no more to do? When am I done? I just know. I’m lucky that way. What I know is that I can’t do any better; someone else might do better, but that’s all I can do; so I call it done.

With diligence, you can carry your writing goals across the finish line. Grammarly will be there cheering you on.