A Brief and Glorious History of the Interrobang

Imagine you need to write down a phone number, but you don’t have any paper handy. What would you use? Some scribble on a receipt, a napkin, or even their hands. Others repeat the number mentally until they locate a sheet of paper. It’s true; necessity is the mother of invention. In other words, people often generate creative solutions if they need something not readily available.

In 1962, the president of an advertising agency, Martin K. Speckter, found himself in need. He lacked a punctuation mark suitable to express excitement and disbelief simultaneously. Of course, exclamation points are always associated with excitement. However, what if ambiguity or doubt accompanies a strong emotion? Other writers address the issue by ending phrases with both a question mark and an exclamation point, as in the following phrase: Why do you think we need new punctuation?! Mr. Speckter saw no need to invent a new punctuation mark from scratch. Why not combine a question mark and an exclamation point? The parent punctuation marks already had one thing in common—the dot beneath them. Logically, Speckter retained this feature in the fusion of the two marks. He merged the top sections by centering the vertical line of the exclamation point through the question mark. The interrobang’s name is also a combination of two parts. “Interro-” is from “interrogative.” “Bang” is printer’s jargon for an exclamation point. Voilà, the birth of the interrobang!

The Economist explains that Speckter envisioned the interrobang adding “nuance and clarity” to rhetorical questions. In the 1960s, refrigerators that dispensed ice were new technology. Consider how punctuation changes affected his advertising copy for this refrigerator feature:

What? A Refrigerator That Makes Its Own Ice Cubes? What! A Refrigerator That Makes Its Own Ice Cubes! What‽ A Refrigerator That Makes Its Own Ice Cubes‽

Remington Rand, a former typewriter company, applauded Speckter’s creation as the modern way to signify credulity. Numerous magazines and newspapers, including The Wall Street Journal, reported the new arrival. Typewriter companies began including interrobangs in their metal typefaces. Had a glorious new day dawned for writers‽

No. Like dogs described as “all bark and no bite,” interrobangs generated buzz, but without a significant impact. Writers continued to use question and exclamation marks, along with the rest of the familiar punctuation canon. Was no one brave enough to embrace the interrobang? Was this curiously incredulous symbol destined to fade into obscurity?

Speckter died in 1988, long before he could see the fate of his pet project. As recently as 2012, Chief Judge Frank H. Easterbrook punctuated a sentence with an interrobang in his decision on Robert F. Booth Trust v. Crowley. But interrobang usage is a rare occurrence; the symbol is relatively unknown by people outside of the writing field. Nevertheless, it’s not totally extinct. The State Library of New South Wales and Punctuate! Theatre in Alberta use interrobangs as logos.

Why did the interrobang fail to establish a foothold as a punctuation mark? No one can say for sure. Perhaps it has to do with the way language develops. To illustrate, imagine you coined a new word in an article. You couldn’t force other authors to adopt the word in their own writings. Even if people used the word for a while after you published your article, it would be difficult to predict whether the word’s usage would be enduring or just a fad. Punctuation marks are subject to the same uncertainty. Henry Denham’s question mark became widely used after the 1580s. Twitter launched the hashtag into popularity in 2006. Other proposed punctuation marks died out completely. That’s the nature of language development!

Have you fallen for the interrobang’s charms? Several fonts, such as Candara, Lucida Sans Unicode, and FreeSerif, support it. If you’d like to use it in Google Docs, click Insert and select Special Characters from the menu. Next, type “interrobang” in the search field. Decide carefully when and how you will use the interrobang. This glyph might be fun to introduce to your friends, but in some contexts it may cause more confusion than it’s worth.

The next time enthusiasm and disbelief strike simultaneously, remember all your options. You can decide between an exclamation point or a question mark. In informal settings, you can use them together. Or, if you want to conserve space, you can take advantage of the multi-functional interrobang.

Top 30 Commonly Confused Words in English

Everyone knows the problem with spell-check: your word might be spelled right, but it may be the wrong word. English is full of confusing words that sound alike but are spelled differently. It’s also full of words that share similar (but not identical) meanings that are easy to misuse. Below are some of the most commonly confused and misused words in English.

Here’s a tip: Looking for a specific pair of commonly confused words on this page? Use ctrl+F or command+F to search the page quickly.

Advice/Advise Advice is a noun: Chester gave Posey good advice. Advise is a verb: Chester advised Posey to avoid the questionable chicken salad.

Affect/Effect Affect is usually a verb: Chester’s humming affected Posey’s ability to concentrate. Effect is usually a noun: Chester was sorry for the effect his humming had. If you find yourself stumped about which one to use in a sentence, try substituting the word “alter” or “result.” If “alter” fits (Chester’s humming altered Posey’s ability to concentrate), use affect. If “result” fits (Chester was sorry for the result his humming had), use effect.

Among/Amongst Among is the preferred and most common variant of this word in American English. Amongst is more common in British English. Neither version is wrong, but amongst may seem fussy to American readers.

Among/Between Among expresses a collective or loose relationship of several items: Chester found a letter hidden among the papers on the desk. Between expresses the relationship of one thing to another thing or to many other things: Posey spent all day carrying messages between Chester and the other students. The idea that between can be used only when talking about two things is a myth—it’s perfectly correct to use between if you are talking about multiple binary relationships.

Assure/Ensure/Insure Assure means to tell someone that something will definitely happen or is definitely true: Posey assured Chester that no one would cheat at Bingo. Ensure means to guarantee or make sure of something: Posey took steps to ensure that no one cheated at Bingo. Insure means to take out an insurance policy: Posey was glad the Bingo hall was insured against damage caused by rowdy Bingo players.

Breath/Breathe Breath is a noun; it’s the air that goes in and out of your lungs: Chester held his breath while Posey skateboarded down the stairs. Breathe is a verb; it means to exhale or inhale: After Posey’s spectacular landing, Chester had to remind himself to breathe again.

Capital/Capitol Capital has several meanings. It can refer to an uppercase letter, money, or a city where a seat of government is located: Chester visited Brasίlia, the capital of Brazil. Capitol means the building where a legislature meets: Posey visited the cafe in the basement of the capitol after watching a bill become a law.

Complement/Compliment A complement is something that completes something else. It’s often used to describe things that go well together: Chester’s lime green boots were a perfect complement to his jacket. A compliment is a nice thing to say: Posey received many compliments on her purple fedora.

Disinterested/Uninterested Disinterested means impartial: A panel of disinterested judges who had never met the contestants before judged the singing contest. Uninterested means bored or not wanting to be involved with something: Posey was uninterested in attending Chester’s singing class.

Defence/Defense Defense is standard in American English. Defence is found mainly in British English.

Emigrate/Immigrate Emigrate means to move away from a city or country to live somewhere else: Chester’s grandfather emigrated from Canada sixty years ago. Immigrate means to move into a country from somewhere else: Posey’s sister immigrated to Ireland in 2004.

E.g./I.e. These two Latin abbreviations are often mixed up, but e.g. means “for example,” while i.e. means “that is.”

Empathy/Sympathy Empathy is the ability to understand another person’s perspective or feelings. Sympathy is a feeling of sorrow for someone else’s suffering. A sympathizer is someone who agrees with a particular ideal or cause.

Farther/Further Farther refers to physical distance: Posey can run farther than Chester. Further refers to metaphorical distance: Chester is further away from finishing his project than Posey is.

Flaunt/Flout Flaunt means to show off: Chester flaunted his stylish new outfit. Flout means to defy, especially in a way that shows scorn: Posey flouted the business-casual dress code by wearing a tiara and flip-flops.

Gaff/Gaffe A gaff is a type of spear or hook with a long handle: Chester completed his sailor costume with a gaff borrowed from his uncle’s fishing boat. A gaffe is a faux pas or social misstep: Posey made a gaffe when she accidentally called Chester by the wrong name.

Gray/Grey Gray is the standard American English spelling. Grey is the standard British English spelling.

Historic/Historical Historic means famous, important, and influential: Chester visited the beach in Kitty Hawk where the Wright brothers made their historic first airplane flight. Historical means related to history: Posey donned a historical bonnet for the renaissance fair.

Imply/Infer Imply means to hint at something without saying it directly: Chester implied that Posey was in trouble, but he wouldn’t tell her why. Infer means to deduce something that hasn’t been stated directly: Posey inferred that Chester was nervous about something from the way he kept looking over his shoulder.

It’s/Its It’s is a contraction of “it is”: Posey needs to pack for her trip because it’s only two days away. Its is a possessive pronoun that means “belonging to it”: Chester is obsessed with both the book and its author.

Lay/Lie To lay means to put or to place. One way to remember this is that there is an a in both to lay and to place: Posey will lay out her outfit before she goes to bed. To lie means to recline. One way to remember this is that there is an e in both to lie and to recline: Chester will lie down for a nap. Be careful, though. The past tense of to lay is laid: Posey laid out her outfit. The past tense of to lie is lay: Chester lay down for a nap over an hour ago.

Lead/Led Lead, when it rhymes with “bed,” refers to a type of metal: Posey wore a lead apron while the dentist X-rayed her teeth. Led is the past tense of the verb to lead, which means to guide or to be first: Chester led the way.

Learned/Learnt Learned is standard in American English. Learnt is standard in British English.

Loose/Lose Loose is usually an adjective: Posey discovered that the cows were loose. Lose is always a verb. It means to misplace something or to be unvictorious in a game or contest: Chester was careful not to lose his ticket.

Principal/Principle Principal can be a noun or adjective. As a noun, it refers to the person in charge of a school or organization: Posey was called into the principal’s office. As an adjective, it means most important: The principal reason for this meeting is to brainstorm ideas for the theme of Chester’s birthday party. A principle (always a noun) is a firmly held belief or ideal: Posey doesn’t like surprise parties as a matter of principle.

Inquiry/Enquiry Inquiry and enquiry both mean “a request for information.” Inquiry is the standard American English spelling. Enquiry is the British spelling.

Stationary/Stationery Stationary means unmoving: The revolving door remained stationary because Posey was pushing on it the wrong way. Stationery refers to letter writing materials and especially to high quality paper: Chester printed his résumé on his best stationery.

Than/Then Than is used for comparisons: Posey runs faster than Chester. Then is used to indicate time or sequence: Posey took off running, and then Chester came along and finished her breakfast.

Their/There/They’re Their is the possessive form of “they”: Chester and Posey took their time. There indicates a place: It took them an hour to get there. They’re is a contraction of “they are”: Are Chester and Posey coming? They’re almost here.

To/Too To is a preposition that can indicate direction: Posey walked to school. She said hello to Chester when she saw him. To is also used in the infinitive form of verbs: Chester waited until the last minute to do his homework. Too is used as an intensifier, and also means “also”: Posey waited too long to do her homework, too.

Toward/Towards Toward is standard in American English. Towards is standard in British English.

Who’s/Whose Who’s is a contraction of “who is”: Who’s calling Chester at this hour? Whose is a possessive pronoun that means “belonging to [someone]”: Chester, whose phone hadn’t stopped ringing all morning, barely ate anything for breakfast.

The Basics of Clauses in English

Clauses are groups of words that contain a subject and a verb. Why should you care about them? Have you ever told someone you loved them? Or written a letter to a friend? Likely, you did it with the help of clauses. You would find your ability to communicate severely limited if you had to express your thoughts without these serviceable units of speech. Why, even asking why you should care about clauses would be impossible! Let’s take a moment to appreciate the most important types of clauses and what they do for us.

Independent clauses

As its name indicates, an independent clause can stand on its own as a sentence. It has a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought. An independent clause by itself is called a simple sentence.

I like ginger snaps. I do not like dark chocolate.

Dependent clauses

Although a dependent clause also has a subject and a verb, a dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It’s only part of a sentence; it doesn’t express a complete thought.

When I grow up Because she is afraid of the dark

These sentence fragments can’t function without an independent clause. The independent clause can come before or after the dependent clause. However, if a dependent clause comes first, it must be followed by a comma. When an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses appear together, the sentence is complex.

I want to be President when I grow up. When I grow up, I want to be a firefighter. Because she is afraid of the dark, she sleeps with a night light. She never walks alone after sunset because she is afraid of the dark.

Did you notice the words at the beginning of the dependent clauses in the examples? These words (when and because) are subordinating conjunctions. They are dependent markers, words that might help you to identify dependent clauses. If a dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjunction, it is an adverb clause. Adverb clauses (also called adverbial or subordinate clauses) provide information about the when, where, why, and how of the independent clause. Let’s revisit one of our examples:

Because she is afraid of the dark, she sleeps with a night light.

Because indicates that an explanation will follow. This adverb clause will answer a question: Why does she sleep with a night light?

Dependent clauses can also begin with relative pronouns and relative adverbs, such as who, whoever, whom, whomever, that, which, when, where, and whose. If the relative clause begins with one of these words and functions as an adjective, it is an adjective clause. Adjective clauses, also known as adjectival or relative clauses modify nouns or pronouns.

that Sally brought to the party whose wallet I found

Of course, you need the rest of the sentence to understand what they are modifying. Adjective clauses describe the nouns that precede them. Often, they answer the question “Which one?”

The cupcake that Sally brought to the party was delicious. (The adjective clause tells you which cupcake is being discussed.)

The man whose wallet I found gave me a generous reward. (The adjective clause identifies which man gave the reward.)

As you can probably guess, noun clauses are relative clauses that act like nouns. They can be the subject, object, or complement of a sentence.

Whoever invented the can opener is a genius. (This noun phrase is functioning as the subject of the clause.) I just remembered that I need to buy butter. (This noun phrase is the direct object.)

I am ready for whatever the future brings. (This noun phrase is the object of a preposition.)

Does the starting word of the second noun phrase look familiar? That, along with how, who, which, when, where, and why can begin noun and adjective phrases. The best way to tell the difference is to ask if the phrase is modifying a preceding noun.

I just remembered that I need to buy butter. (“That I need to buy butter” is not describing the pronoun “I.” Therefore, it is a noun phrase.)

The one item that I forgot to buy is butter. (“That I forgot to buy” is describing “item.” It is an adjective clause.)

Clauses are just groups of words, but you need them if you want to communicate effectively. Can you imagine trying to talk or write without using sentences? How boring would books be if there were no adverb, adjective, or noun clauses? The next time you write something or chat with a friend, remember that clauses make it possible.

Comma Between Subject and Verb

With few exceptions, a comma should not separate a subject from its verb.

My friend Cleo, is a wonderful singer.

Writers are often tempted to insert a comma between a subject and verb this way because speakers sometimes pause at that point in a sentence. But in writing, the comma only makes the sentence seem stilted.

My friend Cleo is a wonderful singer.

Be especially careful with long or complex subjects:

The things that cause me joy, may also cause me pain.

The things that cause me joy may also cause me pain.

Navigating through snow, sleet, wind, and darkness, is a miserable way to travel.

Navigating through snow, sleet, wind, and darkness is a miserable way to travel.

Writing in the Voice of Me

Guest post from Tilia Klebenov Jacobs 

“My book is about, um, me.  Is that okay?”

This is the question I get most often when I teach novel-writing classes.  And I say go for it, because every novelist is a memoirist and every memoirist is a novelist.  Even the most earnest nonfiction writer must of necessity apply a little fiction here and there, if only because she probably wasn’t taking notes on that watershed conversation thirty years ago.  By contrast, the novelist can create a completely fictional character, but as often as not writes about himself.  Far from being a cop-out, this can add richness to one’s prose.

Consider this experiment.  Think of three novels you have enjoyed.  Now compare the protagonist with the author.

Suzanne Vale, the main character of Postcards From the Edge, is a movie star with substance abuse issues.  Big ones.  Much like those of the author, Carrie Fisher.  When Fisher discovered she was bipolar, she wrote a sequel, The Best Awful There Is, in which we find Vale struggling with bipolar disorder.  By this time Vale has a daughter and an ex-husband.  Like Fisher.

A.A. Milne, who wrote the Winnie the Pooh stories, is not a stuffed bear; but his son Christopher Robin had a bear named Edward, which he renamed “Winnie-the-Pooh” after a bear in the London Zoo.  He also had Piglet, Eeyore, Tigger, and Kanga.  The original toys are on display at the New York Public Library.  When Christopher Robin was a boy, the Milne family used to vacation at the Five Hundred Acre Wood in Ashdown Forest, which served as the inspiration for the illustrations for the books.

Valid reasons exist for making your main character an awful lot like you.  The first is believability:  You already know how this person walks and talks, and the fact that she is allergic to Belgian endive.  This puts you a hundred yards down the track when the starting gun goes off, because it means your main character is already a flesh-and-blood person, not a cardboard cutout.

Furthermore, writing about you helps with job- or avocation-related authenticity.  If you are a wedding photographer and so is your book’s hero, you can include all sorts of little details to impress your readers.  Of course, you can do that with research, too, and research is a mighty fine thing.  But there is no substitute for the depth of knowledge that comes from personal experience.

Finally, starting with yourself is a good way to avoid clichés and plot pitfalls.  I remember being in a workshop and critiquing a manuscript whose main character had just done something so catatonically stupid that it wasn’t believable.  The leader, a very successful writer and teacher, made this suggestion:  If you find you’ve written yourself into a corner, ask yourself, “What would I do?” Then have your character do it.  So if you personally would never run back into that zombie-racked mansion that happens to be on fire at the moment, let your character run like hell.  It will spare your readers untold eye-roll moments.

I am happy to admit that the protagonist of Wrong Place, Wrong Time looks and acts an awful lot like me.  She’s married and has the same number of kids that I do.  She’s smart and funny, and she knows how to fight.  I can imagine her living next door to me.  Or in the same house.  My goal was to write a thriller with a familiar, believable heroine at its heart, an ordinary person struggling in an extraordinary situation.  Thinking about myself in the story helped a lot.

So you want to write about you?  Go for it!  Embrace the familiar.  You’ll be glad you did.

About the Author

Writer Tilia Klebenov Jacobs has won numerous awards for her fiction and nonfiction work. Her writing has appeared in The Jewish Magazine and anthologies including Phoenix Rising: Collected Papers on Harry Potter (2008, Narrate Conferences Inc.) and The Chalk Circle (Wyatt-MacKenzie Publishing, 2012), a collection of intercultural essays. Her latest release, Wrong Place, Wrong Time was designated IndieReader Approved and the book won honorable mention for the 2010 Joanna Catherine Scott Novel Excerpt Prize.

For the past 12 years, Jacobs has lived in near Boston, Mass. with her husband, two children and their two standard poodles. In addition to teaching writing at several state prisons in Massachusetts, she has been a guest blogger for Jungle Red Writers, Femmes Fatales and author Terri Giuliano Long’s website. Tilia is a judge in the Soul-Making Keats Literary Competition and will be in San Francisco for the awards ceremony March 30.