This Is How to Write an Effective Research Paper

There are two words that evoke instant anxiety in nearly every academic—research paper. In this article, we’ll break down the steps to writing a research paper.

Here’s a tip: Although the research paper format is fairly standardized, writing guidelines may vary not only among academic institutions but also among individual professors. Pay attention to any how-to handouts you’ve received, and don’t forget to check your university’s writing lab for more resources.

How does a research paper differ from a research proposal?

A research paper is different from a research proposal (also known as a prospectus), although the writing process is similar. Research papers are intended to demonstrate a student’s academic knowledge of a subject. A proposal is a persuasive piece meant to convince its audience of the value of a research project. Think of the proposal as the pitch and the paper as the finished product.

A prospectus is a formal proposal of a research project developed to convince a reader (a professor or research committee, or later in life, a project coordinator, funding agency, or the like) that the research can be carried out and will yield worthwhile results.

—Wichita State University Department of English

Dig into the research process.

Although we’ll focus more on the organization and writing of a research paper in this article, the research process is an important first step. Research will help you in several ways:

• understanding your subject
• formulating ideas for your paper
• developing a thesis statement
• speaking about your topic with authority

Gather resource materials and begin reviewing them. Here are a few good information sources:

• Google Scholar
• Online encyclopedias, almanacs, and databases
• Books and periodicals
• Newspapers
• Government publications, guides, and reports

As you read and evaluate the information you discover, take notes. Keep track of your reference materials so you can cite them and build your bibliography later. The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) and other university writing lab websites are excellent resources to help you understand what information you’ll need to collect to properly cite references.

Here’s a tip: Try storing your notes in a spreadsheet. Create columns for elements you want to include in your paper as well as information necessary for your citations/bibliography. Columns can include headings such as Title, Author, Reference link, Page number, and Quotes.

Here’s a tip: Check with your instructor or university writing lab to determine the preferred citation style. Grammarly Premium identifies things that need to be cited and helps you cite them.

Organize before you start writing.

Your research spawned tons of ideas. Great! Now you’re ready to begin the process of organizing your presentation . . . before you begin writing. Don’t skip the organization step—it’s critical to your paper’s success. Without it, your paper will lack focus and you’ll spend much more time in the revision process trying to make sense of your jumbled thoughts.

The Thesis Statement

The thesis statement is a sentence that summarizes the main point of your essay and previews your supporting points. The thesis statement is important because it guides your readers from the beginning of your essay by telling them the main idea and supporting points of your essay.

—Purdue OWL – Developing a Thesis

Most research papers begin with a thesis statement at the end of an introductory paragraph. Even if it’s not a requirement, it’s a good idea to write a thesis statement as you begin to organize your research. Writing the thesis statement first is helpful because every argument or point you make in your paper should support this central idea you’re putting forward.

Most research papers fall into one of three categories: analytical, expository, or argumentative. If you’re presenting an analysis of information, then your paper is analytical. If you’re writing to explain information, then your paper is expository. If you’re arguing a conclusion, then it’s argumentative or persuasive. Your thesis statement should match the type of paper you’re writing.

Invest time in writing your thesis statement—it’s the main idea of your paper, from which everything else flows. Without a well-thought-out thesis statement, your paper is likely to end up jumbled and with an unclear purpose. Here’s more guidance from Purdue OWL.

The Outline

An outline will help you organize your thoughts before you dig into the writing process. Once you’ve developed your thesis statement, think about the main points you’ll need to present to support that statement. Those main points are your sub-headings. Now, organize your thoughts and information under each sub-heading.

Any information that doesn’t fit within the framework of your outline, and doesn’t directly support your thesis statement, no matter how interesting, doesn’t belong in your research paper. Keep your focus narrow and avoid the kitchen sink approach. (You know, the one where you throw in every bit of interesting research you uncovered, including the fungal growth in the U-joint of your kitchen sink?) Everything you learn may be fascinating, but not all of it is going to be relevant to your paper.

Need more help? Here’s an effective outlining strategy.

Writing the Research Paper

The good news is, once you reach this point in the process you’re likely to feel energized by all the ideas and thoughts you’ve uncovered in your research, and you’ll have a clear direction because you’ve taken the time to create a thesis statement and organize your presentation with an outline.

Here are the best elements to a research paper:

1 The Introduction

Here’s where you present the background and context for the rest of your article. Craft a strong opening sentence that will engage the reader. Just because you’re writing an academic research paper doesn’t mean you have to be dry and boring.

Here’s a tip: See Step 4 in our guide to better content writing. Although it’s about writing for the web, it’s relevant here, too.

Explain the purpose of your paper and how you plan to approach the topic. (Is this a factual report? An analysis? A persuasive piece?) Describe how you’ve organized your approach to the topic. Conclude the introductory paragraph with your thesis statement.

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions:

• What is this?
• Why am I reading it?
• What do you want me to do?
• You should answer these questions by doing the following:
• Set the context – Provide general information about the main idea, explaining the situation so the reader can make sense of the topic and the claims you make and support.
• State why the main idea is important – Tell the reader why he or she should care and keep reading. Your goal is to create a compelling, clear, and convincing essay people will want to read and act upon.
• State your thesis/claim – Compose a sentence or two stating the position you will support with logos (sound reasoning: induction, deduction), pathos (balanced emotional appeal), and ethos (author credibility).

—Purdue OWL

MORE INFO: Starting Your Research Paper: Writing an Introductory Paragraph

2 The Body

Here’s where your outline will come in handy. As you’re writing, remember that your outline isn’t meant to be a prison—it’s a guideline to keep you on track. Your paper may evolve, so keep it fluid, but do remember to stay focused on your thesis statement and proving your points. Don’t let your sources organize your paper! Organize first and use your sources as they become relevant.

Consider the Rule of Three. Find supporting arguments for each point you make, and present a strong point first, followed by an even stronger one, and finish with your strongest point.

MORE INFO: Strong Body Paragraphs

3 Conclusion

Now, it’s time to wrap it up. Most research papers conclude with a restated thesis statement. Present your thesis again, but reword it. Briefly summarize the points you’ve made. Take a moment to explain why you believe those points support your case. If your research is inconclusive, take a moment to point out why you believe this topic bears further research.

MORE INFO: USC Libraries Research Guides: The Conclusion

Checklist for Revising Your Research Paper Draft

Make sure you allow time to revise and edit after you’ve completed your first draft. This part of the process is about much more than just fixing typos and adding or subtracting commas. Here’s a handy checklist to help you make sure your paper is on point.

Developmental Edit

• Is your thesis statement clear and concise?
• Is your paper well-organized and does it flow from beginning to end with logical transitions?
• Do your ideas follow a logical sequence in each paragraph?
• Have you used concrete details and facts and avoided generalizations?
• Do your arguments support and prove your thesis?
• Have you avoided repetition?
• Are your sources properly cited?
• Have you checked for accidental plagiarism?

Line Edit

• Is your language clear and specific?
• Do your sentences flow smoothly and clearly? (Hint: Read your paper aloud to help you catch syntax problems.)
• Have you avoided filler words and phrases?
• Have you checked for proper grammar, spelling, and punctuation? (Hint: Grammarly can help!)

Thorough research, thoughtful organization and presentation, and attention to detail in your developmental and final line edit will help you succeed in crafting a winning research paper.

Make Your Writing Clearer: 6 Tips for Rewording Sentences

The author James Michener said, “I’m not a very good writer, but I’m an excellent rewriter.” If you’re an aspiring author or someone striving for clarity in your professional or academic writing, you appreciate the methodical march of the rewriting process. Each word in a sentence has a job; cut those that do nothing. These six tips will help you achieve clear and concise writing.

Avoid the Passive Voice

The passive voice is flaccid. The subject becomes a helpless thing, acted on by outside forces. In a well-written sentence, the verb is powerful and precise, an active tool at the subject’s command. For example:

• Passive: It is believed by the boxer that the power is there to cause his opponent to fall down.
• Active: The boxer thinks he has a knock-out punch.

Trim the Fat from Flabby Phrases

Some writers use wordy phrases when a single word will do.

Use because instead of:

• Due to the fact that
• In light of the fact that
• Owing to the fact that

Use about instead of:

• Concerning the matter of
• In reference to
• With regard to

Use can instead of:

• Is able to
• Is in a position to
• Has the capacity to

Limit Prepositional Phrases

Use an apostrophe, not a prepositional phrase, to show possession.

• Bad: It was the opinion of the teacher that Susan was ready for third grade.
• Better: In the teacher’s opinion, Susan was ready for third grade.

Don’t use too many prepositional phrases in a sentence.

• Bad: The ultimate point of the discussion with all of the people was to reach a consensus of the group about what to do with the leftover funds from the fundraiser.
• Better: The group discussed options for the leftover fundraiser money and ultimately reached a decision.

Watch for Wordiness

Wordiness is a problem for many writers, whether it’s redundancy, stating the obvious, or packing a sentence with excess detail and unnecessary modifiers.

• Wordy: Imagine in your mind what a caveman from an earlier prehistoric time must have thought about when he originally saw fire for the first time.
• Better: Imagine what prehistoric man thought when he saw fire for the first time.

For precision and clarity, excise these words from your writing:

• kind of
• sort of
• really
• basically
• actually
• generally
• typically
• for all intents and purposes

Edit your writing for redundant pairs such as:

• true facts
• past history
• free gift
• unexpected surprise
• each individual

Combine Sentences

In many cases, you can combine information from two short sentences into one complex sentence without sacrificing clarity. Sentence variety also improves readability.

• Wordy: The house next door is occupied by three widowed sisters. They moved here in 1985 with their three dogs and haven’t left since.
• Better: Three widows and their dogs live next door, their home since 1985.

Avoid Vague Nouns and Noun Strings

All-purpose nouns, such as factor, situation, and area, lead to obscure writing.

• Vague: A college education is an important factor in finding a job in the area of accounting.
• Better: For accounting jobs, a college degree is important.

Writers in a specialty niche such as healthcare or technology often slip into jargon, resulting in noun strings that obscure meaning.

• Vague: The mammography team is working on the radiology technologist radiation protection quality improvement program.
• Better: The mammography team will complete a quality improvement program for protecting radiology technicians from excess radiation.

Writing for clarity requires a ruthless eye for editing your work; it’s helpful to walk away from your composition for a few hours and approach it with new eyes. Then cut the unnecessary, rewrite the unwieldy, and, in the words of Elmore Leonard, “Try to leave out the parts that people skip.”

Do you have any favorite techniques for clearing up your writing?

4 Interview Tips for Introverts That Will Make You Comfortable in Any Setting

Introverts are energized by solitude rather than social activities. We value deep connections. We’re better listeners than we are talkers, at least where chatty small talk is concerned. Unfortunately, job interviews require us to be gregarious, make only a superficial connection, and chit-chat. About ourselves. The horror!

I was well into adulthood before my extroverted dad admitted that, despite my preferring solitude and books over people, I turned out pretty okay. I’ve lost count of the times I’ve been told that I should “just be more social.” Although one-third to one-half of the population are introverts, Western society tends to value the gregarious over the observant and introspective.

The pressure to act as though we love social interaction intensifies when it comes time to interview for a new job. Introverts disdain small talk and are uncomfortable in the spotlight, and job interviews require us to manage both those things with flair. Fortunately, we can use the power of introversion to not only survive the interview process but crush it.

1Fake it.

Okay, at first blush this advice may sound like I’m asking you to deny your true self. But that’s not quite what I’m suggesting. It’s more a matter of getting a foot in the door at a time where first impressions matter. A lot.

There’s some value in the expression “Fake it till you make it.” It’s possible to act more confident than you feel, and it’s also possible to seem more extroverted than you are. Before your interview, remind yourself that, despite your preference for deeper conversations with people you know well, you’re actually good at “peopling.” Do you smile and make eye contact with cashiers when you go shopping? Do you return a friendly hello when someone greets you? Can you engage in a conversation with a random stranger? If you’re like most introverts, you manage all these things just fine.

Odds are, you’ve already found yourself pretending to be more extroverted than you are. So, when it comes time to interview, remind yourself of your chameleon-like ability to blend in and act like a people person even when you’d rather be home reading or watching a movie. Once you’ve proven that a preference for solitude doesn’t mean you can’t interact with people (it’s a commonly held myth that all introverts are shy), you can let your introvert flag fly with pride.

2Be prepared.

When I lived in a tornado-prone part of the country, our local TV weather team had a motto I loved: “Be prepared, not scared.” The head meteorologist believed that information, rather than hype, was necessary to help local viewers ride out the storms. As a weather buff, I was a huge fan.

We have a tendency to generate a lot of hype in our own minds when we’re working our way up to an event as significant as a job interview. Hype is the enemy because it generates anxiety. Preparation is the only way to vanquish it. Before your interview, research the company. Write down anything you may want to ask the interviewer. Give thought to how you’ll answer some of the most common interview questions. Here’s some advice to help you get started.

Organization can help, so bring notes and a professional-looking portfolio. It can even be useful to do some scouting before your interview. Drive to the location so you know where you’re going. Do your best to get the name of the person who’ll be interviewing you and see if you can do a little research into that person’s background. The more you know, the less anxious you’re likely to feel.

3Reference introversion as a positive.

The world is full of introverts, and science shows that we’re pretty darn smart. Sixty percent of gifted children are introverted, as well as seventy-five percent of those identified as highly gifted.

When my son was little, I gave him a coin to drop into a fortune telling machine. The fortune teller (it reminded me of the famous carnival machine in the Tom Hanks movie Big) spit out a card that read:

A wise old owl sat on an oak. The more he heard, the less he spoke. The less he spoke, the more he heard. You’re just like that wise old bird.

It fit. My son is as introverted as I am. And hey, we introverts are like wise owls—we speak less and listen more. We take time to process things. We’re generally very creative when given a quiet space in which to work. We’re awesome.

Talking about your tendency toward introversion can play to your favor during a job interview. No only might the interviewer share your tendencies (or at least closely relate to someone who does), but you can help him or her recognize introverted traits as positive. Here’s a great example:

Let’s say the hiring manager asks, ‘What’s your greatest strength?’

You can reply along the lines of, ‘As an introvert, I’ve discovered that I’m a natural listener and observer. It’s second nature for me to seek out pain points or obstacles that others are facing. Once I’ve gathered enough information, I’m ready to make a thoughtful and impactful contribution.’

—Aja Frost for The Muse

4Know that you’re not alone.

Consider that up to half the population are introverts, many of whom act a lot more extroverted than they are due to societal pressure. You stand nearly fifty-fifty odds of sitting right across from a fellow introvert at your interview.

But even if you find yourself face-to-face with an extrovert instead, the chances of that person knowing and caring about an introvert are higher than you may think. Just because introverts prefer solitude doesn’t mean we’re alone in the world. It also doesn’t mean that there’s any reason to be ashamed of being introverted just because the more gregarious people seem to get all the attention.

Many hugely successful people identify as introverts. They include Bill Gates, JK Rowling, Barack Obama, and Mark Zuckerberg. Even Dr. Seuss, according to Susan Cain (author of Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can’t Stop Talking), “was afraid of meeting the kids who read his books for fear they would be disappointed at how quiet he was.”

We are here, we are here, we are here! And we’re quietly awesome.

These Books Will Help You Truly Relax on Vacation

“An adventure awaits,” “an escape from the ordinary”— travel ads often promise journeyers a chance to leave the ennui of their normal lives. But did you know that you don’t have to board a plane reach an exotic, remote location? In escapist literature, writers create a rich, absorbing environment for their characters. Readers live vicariously in a captivating alternative reality. While the characters in the novel run for their lives or fall head over heels in love, the readers unwind and enjoy the experience from the safety of the real world. These books will enhance your relaxing getaway.

At the Water’s Edge by Sara Gruen

At the Water’s Edge, according to The Globe and Mail, is “a compelling comfort read with an odd plot.” The Hyde family emigrates from the United States to Scotland. Moving to a different country doesn’t sound too strange until you realize they do it to prove that the Loch Ness monster is real. Ellis, the young heir of the family, is not alone in this endeavor; cryptozoology is the study of creatures whose existence has not been proven (or disproven) by scientific evidence. However, for Ellis, uncovering the mystery of the Loch Ness monster equates to saving his family name from dishonor. The farther you follow the exploits of this dysfunctional family, the farther you will leave your cares behind.

The Cuckoo’s Calling by Robert Galbraith

Have you heard of newbie writer Robert Galbraith? As you read this mystery, you may notice that the so-called unknown author has some serious writing chops. The story follows Cormoran Strike, a veteran who lost a leg while on duty, who now makes his living as a private investigator. His newest case deals with the apparent suicide of a supermodel. Her brother John doesn’t think his sister killed herself, and it’s up to Cormoran to find out the truth. The Guardian reports that readers have “never met [a detective] quite like Strike.” In particular, he has an uncanny knowledge of women’s fashion and a keen nose. These two facts give a clue to the true identity of the author. Galbraith seems to know a lot about the ins and outs of film sets. Could it be that seven previous novels about a boy wizard published under his real name yielded eight major motion pictures? If you are still stumped, here’s a final clue: The author shares first and middle initials with an author-economist whose last name is also Galbraith.

How to Murder Your Life by Cat Marnell

It’s not easy to completely destroy your life when you begin with all the advantages. Fifteen-year-old Cat Marnell went to a fancy boarding school. She had access to the best things in life. She was miserable. Unable to provide for her emotional needs, her psychiatrist father did what he knew how to do—prescribe medicine. She quickly graduated from ADHD medicine to Xanax, Ecstasy, and beyond. Was her life completely in the gutter already? No, don’t forgot her connections. She landed a cushy high-profile job at Condè Nast as a magazine article editor. While most successful twenty-somethings were shopping for clothes and hi-tech gadgets, Cat was shopping for drugs. Of course, she couldn’t do it on the street—Condè Nast would have certainly frowned on that. She acquired them straight from the doctor’s office by pretending to have whatever mental illness necessary. Eventually her lifestyle did catch up with her, and her honest report of the aftermath will leave you counting your blessings. How to Murder Your Life is one of Glamour magazine’s Best Books of 2017. Will it make your list too?

I Am a Cat by Natsume Sōseki

Goodreads describes I Am a Cat as “one of the most original and unforgettable works in Japanese literature.” Translated from its original Japanese into English, the novel retains its rich allegories and captivating prose. The story begins with a strangely observant stray kitty with no name. If you like to people watch, you will love to see how the world is interpreted through the eyes of a sneakily silent feline. Don’t make the mistake of thinking it’s all a cute story; the author addresses deep issues about the social issues of the Meiji period, history, art, and Chinese philosophy in this unique satire.

Your travel adventures don’t have to end on the beach. Books can also provide “an escape from the ordinary.” Are you going on a vacation soon? If so, you have two things to do. First, decide where you want to go. Second, choose the books that will transport you to exotic locals as you relax. Enjoy your trip!

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What Does Bff Mean?

• Bff is an initialism of the phrase best friends forever.
• Bff has evolved into a noun that refers to a close friend.

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Being someone’s bff does not mean you’re part of a club with only two members. It does, however, mean that you have a very close friend.

The Meaning of Bff

Bff is an initialism of the phrase best friend(s) forever, and it’s a term of endearment used for selected close friends. It’s been in use since at least 1996, although the concept of having a “best friend” predates the phrase.

How to Use Bff

Bff is mostly used by younger people, especially girls, in informal communication. Bff can be written in uppercase and in lowercase letters, and since it’s usually not used in formal communication, you can write it either way. If you have to use it in formal communication, however, you should remember to pick one of the two capitalization options and use it consistently.

Examples

Janelle and I became bffs after our families went on a vacation together.

We were bffs in high school, but we drifted apart when we went to college.

Dude, we’re like bffs!