How Language Represents Color

Every language represents colors with different words. Linguists have found some interesting patterns in how colors are represented in language. Let’s look at some of their most intriguing findings.

Predictable Sets of Colors

All languages distinguish colors. However, some languages represent colors in only two basic groups. Linguists found that all languages that have only two color distinctions base them on black (or dark) and white (or light). If a language has a third color family, it is almost always based on red. Languages with four color groups label either yellow or green as the fourth. Next come blue, brown, and so on. Interestingly, how languages identify color doesn’t seem to be random. There’s no language that only recognizes orange and pink, for example. English is a language with one of the largest numbers of basic colors. It has eleven. Can you name them all?

Once a Color, Always a Color

Brent Berlin and Paul Kay are anthropological linguists, which means they study the relationship between language, culture, and biology. Their research suggested that languages don’t lose color distinctions once they are made. For example, if a language has distinguished pink from red, it won’t ever go back to grouping them as the same color. Why is this notable? Well, other words are much more likely to come and go or change meaning over time. Snoutfair is extinct already, and many people think whom is in danger of falling completely out of fashion. Colors, on the other hand, hold remarkably steady. That is, until some recent research shook the hypothesis a bit!

New Theories about Color Words

Linguistics professor Claire Bowern and her colleague, Hannah Haynie, studied the evolution of some Australian languages. They found that Australian languages have “lost color terms, as well as gained them.” Perhaps color words aren’t as unchangeable as previously thought! They also found that Australian languages, like many other languages, base language words on the environment. For example, the Yandruwandha word for black is related to a word for ashes.

Would you like to learn more about colors and language? For example, why are there two spellings—gray and grey—for one color? The answer may surprise you!

7 Awesome and Underused Scrabble Words

If a perfect game for competitive wordsmiths exists, Scrabble is it. Not only does the game allow you to flex your vocabulary muscles, it also encourages you to use key strategies to increase your score. When you play these seven underused words, you’ll have a winning chance at an all-time Scrabble high score.

Maximize 

One of the easiest ways to score big with Scrabble is to use one or more of the highest-ranked letter tiles. Playing the X tile will earn you an easy eight points, and this seven-letter word gives you an opportunity to maximize your score, or make it as great as possible. Using all seven of the letter tiles on your rack at once, or scoring a “bingo,” grants you 50 bonus points.

Quixotic

This word includes two of the rarest letter tiles, Q and X. Though you’ll have to be quite quixotic, or extremely idealistic, to think you’ll have the chance to play this word, it’s certainly possible. Since rare letter tiles lead to high scores, this word will impress your opponents and increase your numbers at the same time.

Quickly

Playing common words can be a great Scrabble strategy, since they are easy to remember and implement. Look for a high-scoring location on the game board, and watch for one of the rare Q tiles to appear on your rack. Once you visualize your move, seize the opportunity and play this word as quickly, or speedily, as you can.

Whizbang

Adding on to letters that already appear on the Scrabble board is a great way to play longer words. Since this word includes eight letters, instead of the standard seven stored on your rack, you’ll need to set up this play or build on one by an opponent.  For a whizbang, or a resounding success, of a game, simply add “whiz” to an already played “bang,” and watch your score jump.

Quizzify

This is a tricky play, but one that pays off in a big way. If you get lucky and draw the only Q and Z tiles in the game, throw in a blank tile to stand in for the second Z in this word. If you’re really strategic, you can even play this word on top of triple word and double letter squares. Don’t worry if your opponents quizzify, or question, you for this move. You’ll be the one celebrating your massive score.

Chutzpah

You may need to have to have real chutzpah, or supreme self-confidence, to play this word, since it’s not in everyone’s vocabulary. Scrabble rules prohibit brand names and words that are always capitalized, but this is a common and acceptable Yiddish term and an official Scrabble word. Play the Z tile on a triple letter square, and you’ll really score big.

Jumbles

Sometimes making a clever move on top of an opponent’s smart play is the best strategy. This is an excellent example of a word that can earn you more points with the simple addition of an S tile. Straighten out the jumbles, or disordered mixes, on your rack by playing a quick one-letter extension, otherwise known as a hook. This has served as the winning word for more than one Scrabble tournament, and it can do wonders for your game, too.

If you want to be a Scrabble champion, it helps to have an extensive vocabulary. But if you don’t have time to read through the dictionary, there are other ways to score. To make big plays, memorize these key words and place them strategically.

April 13 is Scrabble Day. What’s the highest scoring Scrabble word you’ve ever played?

 

The Editing Process: How to Get Started

by Georganna Hancock, M.S. editor at A Writer’s Edge, and special guest in this week’s #GrammarlyChat

When we speak of “editing” a manuscript, people generally have in mind copy or line editing. That concerns a variety of elements frequently labeled “grammar,” but in fact includes punctuation, capitalization, syntax and style matters.

Large publishers offer several other types of editing but independent editors also provide them on a freelance basis. At The Bay Area Editors’ Forum, you can learn about the different types of editing and what each entails with definitions of various editorial services.

To get an idea of what some of these editing services cost, consult the Editorial Freelancers Association and its rates. However, charges can vary considerably depending on the job and the editor, location, special needs and the timeline for the work.

A good description of copyediting is Scott Berkun’s “What copyeditors do.” Take time to read through the comments and Berkun’s responses at the end.

If an author decides that professional services are beyond the budget, maybe you can swap editing work with another writer. Getting a different pair of eyes to review your writing is important. When you read what you’ve written, you know what it means. Unfortunately, your meaning may not be evident to others who aren’t privy to the inner workings of your mind.

Any list of writing mistakes is endless. Some, like typos, spelling errors, repeated words, and missing punctuation marks are mechanical. Others can be grammar goofs like mismatched subjects and verbs. Most vexing are the logical issues involving homonyms (disk/disc, you’re/your) and words you may have heard but not seen spelled. Deeper mistakes include point of view (head hopping), timelines, characterization, pacing, internal consistency in story and similar analytic matters.

What to work on first is a personal choice. I suggest you start with the deeper problems (they may require a rewrite), then tackle the common mistakes we all make. Some writers and editors use electronic tools like MS Word’s grammar and spell check or Grammarly’s automated proofreader, which checks for over 250 kinds of grammatical errors. Even Google can help check individual words (although at a terribly slow pace). Professional editors invest in programs that comb an entire manuscript electronically to find errors and make corrections.

Most people would call my final pass through a manuscript (there may be up to five!) “proofreading.” This is when I do the final polishing of the prose, checking little details according to whichever style guide applies to that type of writing. The more well known ones include Chicago, Modern Language Association, New York Times, Associated Press, American Psychological Association and American Medical Association. Find more information on style at the venerable Purdue OWL.

No matter how you go about the editing process, make sure you’re consistent and thorough. No one’s writing is perfect the first time, so edit carefully!

As a #GrammarlyChat bonus, for the rest of this week my Kindle ePub “Editing Your Writing” is reduced to 99 cents. Find it on my Amazon Author Page or directly here.

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About the author Georganna Hancock finds joy in helping other writers along the path to success. She’s a prolific tweeter @GLHancock who blogged for years and offers editorial services at A Writer’s Edge. She reviews books for writers at Blogcritics and publishes on Amazon.

Can You Spell The 25 Most Commonly Missed Words In English?

Educating Educators: Basic Grammar for Teachers

Should all educators have to pass basic grammar in order to teach? Several months ago, Grammarly polled, and over 30,000 people cast their votes. The overwhelming majority, 94 percent, answered yes. But what kinds of skills should be tested? Most states require teachers to pass a test of basic skills, but each state has unique licensure requirements. Generally, the states who use tests focus on math, writing, language arts, and reading comprehension. In addition, teachers often have to pass in-depth tests in their teaching specialty. Let’s talk about what commenters think teachers should know.

Basic Parts of Speech

In one anecdote, one teacher observed a colleague pushing ESL students to identify a direct object in every sentence. Of course, not every sentence has a direct object. Clearly, these students would later have a difficult time understanding what a direct object is and identifying other parts of speech. English teachers in particular should have a firm grasp of grammar and conventions before they deliver a lesson to the class. Teachers and anyone else wishing to review the basic parts of speech can consult our Grammar Basics series. The articles give a brief overview of how to use each of the major parts of speech.

Writing Conventions

One comment reminisces unfavorably about a high school teacher who insisted that the first sentence of every paragraph be the topic sentence. Fatigued with students omitting this sentence, having to search for it, or perhaps from ignorance, she explained that topic sentences are always at the top! The story is humorous, but good writing skills are no laughing matter. Studies have repeatedly proven that good writing skills can help you to distinguish yourself from other applicants in any career. Employers value good communicators, and this skill is essential in the teaching field.

Spelling

Teachers who specialize in a subject should be experts. One commenter found it “incredible that someone can teach something without knowing how to spell it.” A good proofreading program will help teachers avoid spelling errors in printed materials. Teachers should make sure to double-check everything that they distribute to students and parents, including emails and worksheets that they find online.

Commonly Confused Expressions

One teacher fell prey to a commonly confused expression. A commenter shared the feedback that the teacher provided to her fifth-grade daughter: “You should of wrote…” The correct phrase is “should have.” (And it should be “written,” not “wrote.”) Yes, some similar-sounding expressions confuse even professionals! There are many sayings that are frequently mixed-up, and teachers have a prime opportunity to model the correct use of these expressions. Students often pick up the speaking patterns of those with whom they spend significant periods of time—parents, peers, and teachers.

In your opinion, should aspiring teachers have to demonstrate basic grammar skills? It’s not too late to cast your vote! Most teachers do a great job, and they love to learn. Whether an educational institution requires basic skills testing or not, many educators would enjoy brushing up on the basics of writing and grammar. Thankfully, there’s lots of learning material available for students and teachers! Have you taken the time to thank a teacher for helping you to learn basic grammar—either by teaching it directly or setting a great example?

Would you text your boss?

What do you think about the state of writing in the workplace? Share your thoughts in our weekly poll!

3 Things Introverts Feel on Valentine’s Day

Oh, Valentine’s Day—the holiday of love and romance! Or, at least, it’s supposed to be. For me, as a strong introvert with generalized anxiety, holidays are pretty much like those “Mystery Gifts” you bought at dollar stores as a kid. Expectations for awesomeness bloom in your head, only to wither away under a hodgepodge of mediocrity. It’s not all bad, though. Here are a few things that introverts feel on Valentine’s Day and some thoughts on what to do about it.

This is overwhelming.

Too much heart-shaped stuff, a coma-inducing amount of sugar (as if I needed more excitement), and an obscene number of public declarations of love on Facebook.

For a holiday that 36 percent of adults don’t even celebrate, it’s surprisingly ubiquitous. There is advertising everywhere. Pink and red packaging everywhere. Heart-shaped everything everywhere. And, that’s only the marketing pressure. There’s social pressure too. Even well-meaning friends or coworkers discussing their grand romantic plans can induce paralysis. There is a weird feeling that if you don’t do anything or, maybe worse, you don’t do much for your partner on Valentine’s, that it is somehow indicative of your feelings. It’s not. It’s indicative of how claustrophobic it felt when you attempted to plan that elaborate expression of love that one time.

This is inauthentic.

This is basically the only time of year when I am expected to associate true love with glitter, red and pink, and hyper-romantic professions of love.

With the exception of when The Bachelorette starts running, love every other day of the year happens in the context of day-to-day life. It’s less a pair of star-cross’d lovers moving toward happily ever after and more a couple of people appreciating imperfection and working hard in spite of it—and it’s definitely not covered in pink sparkles. Valentine’s Day as it is marketed is an exaggerated, narrow conception of love.

To make matters worse, it’s not even artistically or aesthetically exaggerated. At least if we were all spewing lines from Kahlil Gibran’s The Prophet, swooning over the enduring commitment of Mr. Darcy to Elizabeth Bennett, or exalting the quiet passion in Rodin’s The Kiss, we could claim Valentine’s Day as a cultural boon. But we don’t. Valentine’s Day makes love seem like both a simple, perfect fate and a commodity.

This is awkward.

Do I congratulate friends? What is my date expecting? How do I remain polite without making anyone uncomfortable?

Valentine’s Day, unlike many other holidays, sits in a gray area. With other winter holidays, it’s a safe bet your friends are celebrating something—even if it’s just all the holiday pay. But Valentine’s Day is beloved by many, hated by more, and tolerated by some. It’s a pretty exclusive holiday in practice, celebrated mostly by those coupled among us, which leaves a lot of people out.

So, how do you know what is expected from your new partner, your friends, or—jeez—your coworkers? Hypothetically, if I were to bake heart-shaped cookies and share a romantic quote on Twitter, would I make a fool of myself at the office or inspire my love-skeptic friends to tease me for the next two weeks? Or, what if I do nothing, but everyone around me gets really into it? It’s awkward because it’s vulnerability, and it’s public, and there aren’t clear expectations for how to behave with everyone.

What to do about it.

Valentine’s Day can be a source of sensory and emotional overload because it is built around oversimplified or exaggerated romance and doesn’t include obvious standards to help navigate various social relationships. That doesn’t mean the day can’t be enjoyable for introverts, however.

As an introvert, it’s important to focus on your needs and on communicating expectations. If going through the candy aisle to stock up on treats for the office party gives you anxiety, ask if you can help with something else, like planning the music. And, if you’re not sure how your partner feels about the holiday, make a point to discuss your ideal Valentine’s Day ahead of time.

If you are dating an introvert, keep things simple and personal by avoiding elaborate and flashy professions of love. Opt instead for gestures that reflect intimate knowledge of your partner and deep appreciation for them.

Are you celebrating Valentine’s Day? What do you think about it and what are your preferences?