Political Correction: How “PC” and “Reclaimed” Words Got Their Start

Any Google News search for “political correctness” will yield three general groups of results: pieces slamming one public figure or another for their lack of politically correct discourse, thinkpieces describing why the “PC police” are ruining free speech, and articles debating whether certain actions or speech patterns are “politically correct.”

While online pundits and thinkpiece authors spend a lot of energy debating whether terms or usages are PC, or condemning certain figures for their use or avoidance of PC language, there aren’t as many discussions about the history of politically correct language. Why do some English speakers distinguish appropriate terms from slurs, insults, and problematic figures of speech? Also, what does it mean when other English speakers say they are “reclaiming” or “reappropriating” a word?

What Is Politically Correct Language?

Let’s start this discussion of political correctness with a working definition of “politically correct” that goes beyond South Park’s “PC Principal.” According to Merriam-Webster’s definition, this means,

agreeing with the idea that people should be careful to not use language or behave in a way that could offend a particular group of people.

As we can see from this definition, political correctness begins with a belief in using inclusive language—words and phrases that have not historically been used to demean, belittle, or insult any particular group of people. An English speaker who doesn’t believe in using inclusive language is probably not in favor of political correctness, either.

Although it’s true that inclusive language is more than political correctness, one of the biggest misconceptions about PC language is that it’s a new phenomenon. The Harvard Political Review tracked the history of the phrase “politically correct” and found that the term has been used since the 1700s, although it didn’t take on its current meaning until the 1960s. In the ’60s, political parties in the United States would debate whether actions, policies, and language were “correct,” with procedural, almost clinical connotations. The next usage shift came in the 1990s, when “PC” began to take on negative connotations for some political parties in the U.S., even as it was wholeheartedly adopted by others. Today, “politically correct” can be used in many contexts, from debates that hark back to the political procedure discussions to condemnations of any limitation of speech.

A (Brief) History of Reappropriation

Of course, if a word is deemed politically incorrect by a person or group, then who decides whether or when it’s appropriate to use again? This is where reappropriation and reclamation of language enter the PC landscape. And like political correctness itself, these have a long academic history.

“Reclamation” (or the related term “reappropriation”) has been used in the field of social science since the mid-1960s, often in reference to either tangible assets lost by certain groups (land, natural resources) or cultural customs believed to be lost (traditions, language). Although its official definition varies with use, “reappropriation” involves a group bringing back an idea, custom, or object that had once been used by others in a way the group perceived as negative or hurtful. For example, the term “queer” was reclaimed by some members of the LGBT community in the 1990s, when the former slur started to have new meaning as a sexual or gender identifier.

If you look at the Google Ngram chart below, you’ll notice that the frequency of the word “reclamation” has remained low but steady in printed books since the early 1910s. The more active “reclaim,” however, began rising in popularity in the 1960s, overtaking its academic predecessor in the mid-1990s. Additionally, “problematic,” a term often lobbed at words deemed inappropriate because of their derogatory or prejudiced nature, rose sharply in popularity starting in the 1970s and reaching a peak in the late ’90s.

So, it would seem that as political correctness was gaining new meaning in the 1960s and 1990s, the discussion of reclamation or reappropriation of language was similarly piquing public interest. But what does this history have to do with the state of PC and reclaimed discourse today?

What Is “Reclaiming” a Word?

Although numerous groups have reclaimed words or phrases, here’s what the Gay, Lesbian & Straight Education Network has to say about reclaimed language:

As language evolves, some individuals and communities choose to identify with terms that had previously been used as slurs against them. These words are “reclaimed” and given new meaning, often imbued with a sense of pride and resilience. Examples include “queer,” “dyke,” and “tranny,” among others. It’s important to remember that identity is unique to each individual; not all members of a community readily accept the use of reclaimed words, as they may still find them offensive and hurtful.

This definition, and others like it, exist across multiple groups who are currently working to “reclaim” certain words once deemed offensive or politically incorrect. The examples above are specific to the LGBTQ community, which has reclaimed numerous words over the years. But it maps back to the larger trend outlined by Merriam-Webster’s definition of the word “reclaim”:

to get back (something that was lost or taken away)

But why would you want to “get back” something that was once used to degrade your identity?

According to Tony Thorne, curator of the Slang and New Language archive at Kings College, it’s a simple issue of control. If you control the language, you can control the narrative about your group. As he says, “Reappropriation of ethnic and sexual slurs starts as an act of bravado by a few of the oppressed, then may become an empowering mechanism for a much wider community.” Under this reasoning, reclaiming a potentially negative word like “queer” could help members of the LGBT community feel as though they’ve changed the narrative about sexual or gender identity. It also can allow English to reuse once politically incorrect words as positive watchwords for certain interested people or groups. As GLSEN mentions above, though, people outside these marginalized groups should be careful when using reclaimed words, since they can still be offensive to certain people, even if their definitions and usage are rapidly changing.

English Evolves

However we may personally feel about either political correctness or reclaiming language, there is one fact all English speakers must acknowledge—English evolves. Any grammar pedant who claims a static set of rules for English needs a gentle history lesson; English has always changed and always will.

So, whether the Internet implodes because of the PC debate or not, English speakers will continue to change the rules for accepted terms and usage among certain groups. When you find yourself uncertain about a potentially loaded term, it helps to ask members of certain groups which words they prefer. If that’s not a possibility, it may also help to avoid some new or changing words you aren’t entirely sure how to use.

Of course, not everyone agrees that politically correct language is important. But let me challenge us all to take ten seconds to consider how our words may affect others. Let’s all try harder to make the Internet a more inclusive place. Perhaps we can create a future state of English that allows people to define themselves however they choose, in whatever terms they deem fit. If those terms are accepted by the wider English-speaking public, great! If not, perhaps we should allow previously unheard voices to introduce themselves in their own words.

Finally, to those who dislike political correctness and reclaimed words, let’s talk about it! Leave a comment below to continue the discourse on this language trend.

“Seasonal” Words: Do They Exist?

Summer afternoon, summer afternoon; to me those have always been the two most beautiful words in the English language,

Henry James once wrote.

With the start of spring and the promise of summer, now is a good time to think about seasonal words. Writers, by nature, are collectors of words and catchy turns of phrase, but are there some that should be retired when they fall out of season? Look to literature for inspiration.

Words for Spring

Spring is associated with birth and youth, and the emergence of color after drab winter days. Vernal, verdant, fertile, burgeoning, and callow are favorite spring words, as are blossoming, sprouting, and bursting forth. A line from Rainer Maria Rilke says it best:

Spring has returned. The Earth is like a child that knows poems.

Spring is also the perfect time to express words of love. Pablo Neruda, master of love poems, invokes spring themes:

I want to do to you what spring does with the cherry trees.

You can’t help thinking of romance with spring-like phrases such as breathe in and come alive.

Words for Summer

In summer, the song sings itself.

wrote William Carlos Williams. Summer is the season of daydreams, beach walks, and carefree afternoons soaking up the sun. Languid, languorous, and leisurely are favorite summer words, as are jaunty, jovial, and happy-go-lucky.

Summer is also the season of heat and passion. Think sizzling, sweltering, searing, and scorched. In Mad in Pursuit, Violette Leduc describes summer well:

I walk without flinching through the burning cathedral of summer.

Of course, no summer vocabulary is complete without recreational words like picnic, cookout, camp, and vacation.

Words for Autumn

Autumn is the only season that has two names. The word fall for the third season appeared in the 16th century; prior to that time, only summer and winter were defined seasons with names. Spring and fall were shortened from “spring of the leaf” and “fall of the leaf” to define the in-between seasons.

Fall is the season of harvest, of crisp weather, and (of course) pumpkin spice latte. William Blake’s famous poem “To Autumn” begins,

Oh Autumn, laden with fruit and stained with the blood of the grape, pass not, but sit beneath my shady roof.

Autumn is crackling, golden, and vibrant – a cornucopia of color.

Back to school sale, Indian summer, and pumpkin patch are uniquely autumn phrases that rarely get used once fall has passed.

Words for Winter

When winter comes, it brings words such as snowflake, shiver, frostbite, and flurry. John Updike wrote of winter:

The day is short, the sun a spark hung thin between the dark and dark.

Earmuffs, parka, mittens, boots – winter has its own wardrobe of words. It has its own menu, too: hot cocoa, hearty stew, fruitcake, Christmas cookies, and milk.

Some winter words melt away with spring: icicle, hibernate, toboggan, snowball fight, wind chill factor, and arctic blast.

Words for Holidays

Each holiday has a unique lexicon of seasonal words. New Year’s Eve brings resolutions and Auld Lang Syne. April heralds Easter bunnies and Easter bonnets, egg rolls and egg hunts, and the iconic marshmallow Peep. In July, we get fireworks, parades, and patriotism wrapped in the American flag. Christmas is the mother lode: Santa, mistletoe, Black Friday, eggnog, nutcracker, Scrooge, tinsel, wassail, carol, and Yule.

Most words are evergreen and show up all year round, but some words evoke seasonal memories and feel out of place when they’re used out of turn. Pumpkin pie and picnic, for example, elicits a seasonal disconnect.

What are some of your favorite words to conjure up a warm spring day or a cold winter night?

Monday Motivation Hack: Coffee Alternatives

You’re jittery, sweaty, and unable to focus. What had seemed like the perfect dose of java to power all your feats of Monday superheroism has betrayed you.

In the throes of a caffeine come-down, as you blearily attempt to finish drafting your project update, you swear:

“I’m going to quit coffee.”

Though there are good reasons for healthy people to consume coffee in moderation, some individuals may find themselves overdoing it or may be simply too sensitive to the acidity or caffeine. If this sounds familiar, here is how you can quit coffee.

How to Quit Coffee

Assuming you really do want to quit drinking coffee—or at least limit your consumption—you are going to need another way to boost your energy and keep yourself at the top of your game. The number-one way to quit caffeine and boost your energy is to get your circadian rhythm on a regular, well-rested schedule. To do this, you need to:

1. Stay hydrated. The Institute of Medicine recommends men drink thirteen cups and women drink nine cups of beverages daily. Aim for mostly hydrating drinks like water, lemon water, and coconut water.
2. Eat Your Vitamins. Eating a balanced, colorful diet composed of whole foods, mostly vegetables, will ensure that you are getting the necessary amounts of vitamins and minerals to fuel your productive genius. Magnesium is a particularly vital mineral for energy. Eat plenty of nuts and fish to boost your levels naturally.
3. Avoid sugar. Sugars, whether in the form of sweeteners or the carbohydrates in processed foods, cause blood sugar spikes that might make you feel better in the short-term, but pack a nasty crash a couple of hours later. Blood sugar and insulin swings make it difficult for you to concentrate and weaken your willpower. Opt for healthy snacks with a balance of fat and protein that will keep you going strong.
4. Move more. Research shows that a ten-minute walk at a nice clip boosts energy more effectively than a candy bar and that regular walks improve overall energy levels.
5. Sleep. Insufficient sleep and sleep disorders are all too common in the U.S. Despite recommendations to get seven to eight hours of sleep nightly, 30 percent of adults get six or fewer hours. While the jury is still out on whether more sleep guarantees success, if you’re nodding off at your desk, it’s time to get some more regular shut-eye.

However, if your rebel heart simply refuses to abide by guidelines . . .

There are some non–Red Bull alternatives you can try.

Coffee Alternatives

Most people are simply looking for a replacement for their daily mug(s) of joe—something satisfying to fill the void during the morning routine. Luckily, there are many satisfying alternatives to coffee.

If you are looking to cut back on caffeine or the “crash” associated with coffee. . .

Make your life easy and switch to decaffeinated coffee. Voila, problem solved.

If you can’t tolerate the acidity of coffee. . .

Reach for some yerba mate or green tea. Both have caffeine, but yerba mate has a smoother come-down while green tea has a 75 percent lower dose of caffeine than coffee. Shorter brew times for both teas will weaken the stimulant concentration further.

If you want to get away from caffeine but still want some chemical energy. . .

Try ginkgo tea to boost circulation and energy levels. Siberian ginseng, not to be confused with American ginseng, contains compounds that may improve mental performance, not to mention boost your immune system.

If you want to try a whole new kick. . .

Spicy tea varieties pack an energizing punch. For no-caf, my go-to when I go sans coffee is lemon and ginger tea, fresh or in sachets. Personally, I love this as strong as I can make it with a cinnamon stick, honey, and coconut oil. If you’re comfortable with a bit of caffeine, try chai. This aromatic mix of black tea with warming spices and frothy milk contains between 25 and 50 percent the amount of caffeine found in coffee.

If you’re looking for zero-caf invigoration. . . Just can’t do caffeine? A number of herbal teas can be quite revitalizing. Lemongrass and citrus teas have a bite that perks you up, while mint teas are calming but refreshing. Stay away from lavender and camomile blends, which are soothing to the point of being downright restful.

If you’re looking for pure coziness in a cup. . . Carob powder drinks are your new go-to. This chocolate substitute gives you all the indulgence of hot cocoa and blends very well with all kinds of milk without any of the stimulant effects of coffee or chocolate.

Which drink will you try? Do you have any coffee alternatives that you swear by?

How to Use “-Esque”?

• The suffix -esque means “like” or “resembling.”
• You can add -esque to almost any noun, including proper nouns.
• Use restraint. Too many -esque words in the same passage may seem clumsy and repetitive.
• Don’t pile on redundant suffixes that mean the same thing as -esque (e.g., “picturesque-like”).

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If someone called you a statue, you might not find it so flattering. However, if someone called you statuesque, you would probably thank them for the compliment. What does the suffix -esque mean? Can you add -esque to any word? Here come the answers!

Meaning of -Esque Suffix

This suffix means “in the manner of, resembling.” So statuesque means suggestive of a statue in dignity, grace, or beauty. Is there another way to express the idea behind -esque? You could use an adjective. For instance, instead of saying that something is lionesque, you could use adjectives to describe the qualities that remind you of a lion: proud, majestic, fear-inspiring, feline, etc. You could also see if the similar suffix -like works: The man was lionlike.

How to Use -Esque

What do you do if you can’t find a preexisting -esque word that fits? It’s not very often that English allows you to invent a word on the spot, but in this case it’s acceptable. You can add -esque to almost any noun. For example, if you think that your neighbor resembles Abraham Lincoln, you can describe his face as Lincolnesque.

You can attach it to the names of people or groups of people (Namath-esque and Romanesque). You can also attach it to a regular old noun (lionesque).

Does -Esque Need a Hyphen?

Does -esque need a hyphen? No, the hyphen is optional. And don’t worry if your spelling checker puts a red squiggly line under your novel -esque words. The alert lets you know that the word isn’t in the spelling checker’s dictionary; that doesn’t mean it’s wrong. But if the hyphen is unnecessary, why ever would you add it?

Imagine you were reading an ESPN article and you find this quote:

On this night, he was Namath-esque, driving the ball downfield against a couple of very good cornerbacks.

ESPN.com

If you aren’t familiar with football, you might not know that Namath is the name of a former football player. So you look up Namathesque in a dictionary, but you won’t find it there. The hyphen alerts readers that the -esque word might be a unique one. If you see the hyphen, you would probably search for Namath on the Internet rather than in a dictionary.

In other cases, a hyphen can make an -esque word a little easier to read, especially if you’re adding -esque to a word that already ends in a vowel.

Words With -Esque

What are some other words ending in the suffix -esque? Here are five common examples from dictionaries—arabesque, burlesque, gigantesque, grotesque, picturesque. Let’s look at some examples of people creating their own -esque words.

Mel’s new Santa-esque look will likely be wasted on his unborn ninth child to new girlfriend Rosalind Ross, who is not expected to give birth until after the 2016 holiday season.

DailyMail.com

Details of the new series are being kept under wraps, but I hear it is a prequel, described as a Malcolm in the Middle-esque single-camera family comedy centered on the child prodigy Sheldon character at age 12.

Deadline.com

The importance of Rogue One, however, goes far beyond entertainment value and even profit margins, as the ultimate success or failure of this movie could have a major impact on the future of the Star Wars franchise and, more specifically, the potential for a Marvel-esque Star Wars Cinematic Universe.

Fansided.com

Can you add -esque to any word? Pretty much. What does the suffix -esque mean? It means “reminiscent of” or “in the style of.” What other questions do you have about -esque?

J.K. Rowling’s Top Tricks for Working Magic With Your Writing

One of the most miraculous aspects of J.K. Rowling’s wizarding world is that it’s just so darn big. If you’re an aspiring author, you may wonder just how Rowling managed to crank out so many books, use so much imagination, and keep the ideas flowing.

Here’s a secret: she didn’t just wave a magic wand. She wrote every single one of the 1,084,170 words in the Harry Potter series (and lots more in her other books, plays, and movies). How does she keep churning them out? Will the wizarding world ever stop growing? And what’s the real trick to becoming a bestseller?

Before you stop reading and start googling “Hogwarts School of Writing and Wizardry,” here are eight steps for diving into your writing, creating a routine, and not giving up—even when it seems He-Who-Shall-Not-Be-Named and all the forces of the Dark Arts are against you.

1. Believe in Magic.

Okay, not literally (at least, unless you do). But this tip is just about believing in yourself as a writer, the content you create, and your ability to keep going. Take it from J.K.: she had always wanted to be a writer, and she kept inventing stories until people read them (and boy, did they read them). To make it as a writer, you have to believe you’ve got the magic it takes to make words come alive on the page.

It all started out as a dream for J.K. Rowling, too. Hear the world-renowned author talk about her pie-in-the-sky idea of becoming a writer.

2. Treat writing like it’s your job.

This is true whether writing is, in fact, your job, or whether you just want it to be. Treating it like a job means setting aside time to finish what you need to do. Some authors give themselves strict daily word limits (Mark Twain averaged right around 1,800).

J.K. hasn’t talked about giving herself a word limit, but she has made it clear that she puts in her time. Since she hit the big time with Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone (Sorcerer’s Stone, in the American edition) and managed to make it her full-time gig, she’s careful to put in her eight hours a day—even if that sometimes means working through the night. But before that, when she was a single mom on social assistance, sometimes it was all she could do to snatch a spare moment to scribble a stray idea.

In her words:

You’ve got to work. It’s about structure. It’s about discipline. It’s all these deadly things that your school teacher told you you needed…You need it.

3. Treat writing like it’s not your job.

Yes, that’s the opposite of Step 2 and no, you’re not reading it wrong. It’s important to set a routine, make yourself fill quotas, and be serious about this gig, but if it’s too much of a job, you risk losing the magic (remember Step 1?).

That said, don’t over-stress about things like words per day if it’s not your style. For some writers, tallying up those numbers is a big motivator. But for other writers—and also for certain projects or stages in creating a new project—it’s not all about hitting a word quota. It’s about brainstorming, coming up with lists of names and ideas, making a chart of how your story will unfold, or doing research about the history of wizards in Europe. That sort of work feels a lot more like a game.

4. Inspiration can strike at surprising times. Be ready.

If you chain yourself to your desk and stare at a piece of paper hoping for words to appear on it, they’re probably less likely to materialize than if you mix in a little bit of Step 3. But sometimes a lightning bolt strikes—and you’re suddenly imagining a kid with a lightning-bolt scar on his forehead.

For J.K. Rowling, the idea for that kid “fell into” her head while she was staring off into space waiting for a train from Manchester to London. No, she didn’t happen to be on Platform 9 ¾; she just happened to have an idea. But unfortunately, she didn’t have a pen.

This might sound like a cautionary tale against not being ready for inspiration striking. But being ready isn’t just about carrying a pen, post-its, or an iPad: it’s about being prepared to let the ideas flow. Rowling says of the experience:

I simply sat and thought, for four (delayed train) hours, while all the details bubbled up in my brain, and this scrawny, black-haired, bespectacled boy who didn’t know he was a wizard became more and more real to me […]Perhaps, if I had slowed down the ideas to capture them on paper, I might have stifled some of them.

There you have it: a delayed train and lack of writing utensil were all it took to conceive of one of the greatest literary franchises in recent history.

And it wasn’t the only time she found herself short of materials, either: another famous anecdote tells of Rowling scribbling down the names of the characters on a barf bag on an airplane. Luckily, it was unused. That’s why Rowling says:

I can write anywhere.

It doesn’t mean you should deliberately forget to bring stuff to write on or with when you’re traveling from point A to point B. The lesson here is to keep your mind open to ideas that drop into it.

5. Plan ahead. Way ahead.

The idea for Harry Potter may have fallen into J.K. Rowling’s head in that train station in 1990, but actually writing the story took a lot longer. Over five years, Rowling mapped out the entire series, book by book. She had the plot developments, characters, names, and rules that governed the wizarding world all figured out before she so much as considered the words “Chapter One.”

That shows the importance of planning. Readers learn the word “Horcrux” for the first time in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince—six whole books into the series—but by the time they’re fully explained, you realize that they’ve been showing up ever since the very beginning. (Note: that wasn’t a spoiler, in case you haven’t read the books. Maybe you know to look out for Horcruxes, but just try figuring out what you’re looking for.)

Anyway, by planting a seed early in her series that would become central to the plots of the later books, J.K. shows the vital importance of planning before you write.

And here’s the kicker: this doesn’t apply only when you’re writing a multi-book series. One book, one story, an article, a blog post, you name it: create an outline, determine when you’re going to incorporate key details, and don’t start at the beginning without knowing the ending.

6. Kill your darlings.

This quote isn’t from J.K. Rowling; in fact, it’s most often attributed to William Faulkner.

In writing, you must kill all your darlings.

The gist: be willing to leave stuff out, even if you think it’s good. In other words: edit, edit, edit.

This is an important one after Step 5: you may have made a thorough plan that looks really solid in bullet-point form, but once you start turning it into prose you might find out that some details don’t work as well as you thought they would, or a scene leads somewhere unexpected, or maybe doesn’t lead anywhere at all. It can be agonizing, but willingness to adjust your plan and edit your writing is key to success.

Our author of the hour, J.K. Rowling, is no exception. She wrote, re-wrote, and re-worked the opening chapter of Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone not one, not two, but fifteen times. Here’s what she has to say about those early drafts:

You have to resign yourself to the fact that you waste a lot of trees before you write anything you really like, and that’s just the way it is […] It’s like learning an instrument, you’ve got to be prepared for hitting wrong notes occasionally, or quite a lot, cause I wrote an awful lot before I wrote anything I was really happy with.

Be willing to make changes, and know that you might end up cutting out words, sentences, and entire sections you thought belonged. The reason? You might love those little darlings, but to a reader they might just be unnecessary details. Which leads us to…

7. Write like a reader.

J.K. Rowling says she didn’t have a particular target audience in mind while writing Harry Potter; she just thought of what she would want to read.

Ask yourself questions like these: Are you giving away a juicy detail that could come later? Including a “darling” idea that you’re proud of, but doesn’t really advance the plot? Telling what happens, instead of ending the chapter (or book) on a cliffhanger?

This ties in with planning: keep the excitement and the mystery by not giving away your secrets too early. J.K. Rowling says she had finished her first draft of the first Harry Potter book before realizing she’d included some key plot elements that shouldn’t show up until much later in the series. So it was back to the drawing board.

Plot and pacing are the meat and potatoes of writing for your readers, but it’s also important to work in time for some sweet, sticky candy to keep your readers addicted. Rowling does this with things like fun-to-say names (Bertie Bott’s Every Flavour Beans), out-of-this-world concepts (earwax flavor), and characters that real-live humans can truly empathize with (no, not Bertie Bott—Harry and his friends). Her ability to capture readers’ imaginations and hearts is as much about the details of the wizarding world as the sequence of events in the series.

Hear Rowling talk about where some of her ideas come from—the blend of influences from her life, pure invention, and human motivation is exactly the reader-focused recipe we’re talking about.

8. Read inspiring quotes about writing.

The overarching tip here: love what you write and don’t give up. But we’re going to give the last word (or words) to J.K. Rowling. Sometimes all it takes is a push from a role model to get you rolling in the right direction, so keep these mood boosters nearby if you’re feeling down on yourself or writing. Believe us: J.K. knows what she’s talking about.

Can you make that kind of transformation with Polyjuice potion?

Failure is inevitable—make it a strength.

A step up from writing for your reader: being your reader.

I just write what I wanted to write. I write what amuses me. It’s totally for myself.

Maybe you thought you are what you eat. Not according to J.K. Rowling.

What you write becomes who you are…So make sure you love what you write.

If you’re waiting on publishers, agents, or other forces beyond your control, you just have to let those forces do their thing. It’ll work out in the end.

Wait. Pray. This is the way Harry Potter got published.

How could you not feel inspired?

We do not need magic to transform our world. We carry all of the power we need inside ourselves already.

In the end, we can’t promise that these tips will snag you a Pulitzer Prize, but setting a writing schedule and letting your imagination run free are important first steps.

Comma Before Too: When Do You Use It?

You’ve likely read sentences in which there was a comma before too, but is this correct usage? Well, it depends on the intention of the writer. When using the word too, you only need to use a comma before it for emphasis. According to The Chicago Manual of Style, a comma before too should be used only to note an abrupt shift in thought. When the too comes in the middle of a sentence, emphasis is almost always intended since it interrupts the natural flow of the sentence. Consider the example below:

I, too, like bananas.

I too like bananas.

When a too comes at the end of a sentence, however, a comma is almost never needed:

I like bananas too.

Since it really depends on the writer’s intent, there is no hard-and-fast rule when it comes to using a comma before too. Remember that commas often denote a pause, especially when emphasis is intended, so reading the sentence aloud and listening for a pause may be helpful.

English Grammar Rule Basics

A house needs a good foundation. Likewise, to speak a language, you need a firm understanding of grammar. Here are some basic rules you will need to know if you want to speak and write English well.

Nouns

Nouns denote animate and inanimate things, ideas, places, or people. They compose about half of the English language. There are many types of nouns, and each type has its own usage rules. However, here are two rules that are relatively universal for nouns:

Pluralization

To make regular nouns plural, add an -s to the end of the word. Of course, there are exceptions. If a word ends with the letter y, you change the y to i, and add -es.

Regular nouns

house➝houses tool➝tools

Nouns that end in Y

balcony➝balconies

Remember, however, that even exceptions have exceptions! For a more detailed explanation, check the Grammarly Handbook.

Capitalization

Capitalize nouns if they are at the beginning of a sentence, or if they are proper nouns. Proper nouns refer to specific people or places.

George obtained his degree from McGill University.

Note that some nouns can be proper nouns or common nouns.

Will Dad allow me to go to the park? My dad allowed me to go to the park.

Pronouns

After mentioning a noun once, it’s tedious to repeat it again and again. Pronouns replace nouns. There are also different types of pronouns. Pronouns must agree in number and gender with the noun they replace.

The nails (plural) are too flimsy for the job.➝They are too flimsy for the job. Yolanda (feminine, singular) finished her drink.➝She finished her drink. Bobby (masculine, singular) doesn’t like coconut.➝He doesn’t like coconut.

Articles

The three articles a, an, and the distinguish between specific and nonspecific nouns. A and an are indefinite articles, whereas the is a definite article. If you want to refer to a specific thing, use the. If not, use a before a noun beginning with a consonant and an before a noun beginning with a vowel or a voiceless H.

A book is on the table. (a nonspecific book) An almanac is on the table. (a nonspecific almanac) An hourglass is on the table. (a nonspecific hourglass) The book is on the table. (a particular book)

Adjectives

Adjectives describe nouns. In most cases, adjectives appear before the noun they modify. If more than one adjective modifies the same noun, separate the adjectives with a comma if they are coordinate; that is, if they modify the noun equally. Don’t add a comma if one of the adjectives forms a unit of meaning with the noun (as is often the case with words describing color).

The mail carrier wore a bright blue bowtie with his uniform. The mail carrier fed the dogs some pungent, crumbly biscuits.

Adverbs

While adjectives describe nouns, adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Most of them end in -ly, but you can also identify them by asking the questions how, where, or when. For instance: How did Sally sing? Sally sang well. Because it answers the question how, well is an adverb.

The Rule: Never place an adverb between the verb it modifies and the direct object of the verb.

The car turned quickly the corner.

The correct word order is “The car turned the corner quickly.” Or “The car quickly turned the corner.”

Verbs

Verbs make it possible to describe an action, state, or occurrence. In other words, verbs let us know what’s happening. Hundreds of rules govern the use of verbs. The standout rule has to do with consistency. In a sentence, you have to pay attention to the tenses of the verbs. Let’s look at an example.

Betsy arrived home from school, eats a snack, and watched her favorite cartoon.

In the example, “eats a snack” is in the present tense, but the other verbs are in the past tense. This is a no-no. You can’t describe the same period in two different tenses in the same sentence. To achieve verb tense consistency, you must maintain the same tense throughout the sentence. And if you want to refer to multiple time periods, you will want to separate them into a new clause or start a new sentence.

Betsy arrives home from school, eats a snack, and watches her favorite cartoon. (All present tense) Betsy arrived home from school, ate a snack, and watched her favorite cartoon. (All past tense) Betsy arrived home from school and watched her favorite cartoon. Now, she is eating a snack. (The tense changes in the new sentence)

Prepositions

Prepositions situate nouns in time or place. You have probably heard one “rule” of preposition use: never end a sentence with a preposition! In reality, this advice only applies to very formal writing, and even there it is somewhat dated. In casual speech and writing, dangling prepositions are generally acceptable.

Here is a bag you can keep your things in. (casual) Here is a bag in which you can keep our things. (formal)

Conjunctions

Conjunctions link ideas, clauses, and parts of sentences. Notice how the coordinating conjunction and can be used to combine two related sentences.

Hugh loves coffee. Hugh has always wanted to own a cafe. Hugh loves coffee and has always wanted to own a cafe.

When you use conjunctions, be sure that the two components have parallel structure. To illustrate, consider the verbs in these two linked phrases:

To lose weight, Jack diets, ran marathons, and drinks lots of water.

Here, two verbs are in the present tense, and one verb is in the past tense. Remember your verb rule! You can’t mix the tenses. With conjunctions, make sure that all the elements in a list match. If you are listing nouns, for example, you cannot insert a verb into the same list.

Interjections

Interjections are words we use to express extreme emotions or to emphasize a point. They are often followed by an exclamation point if they stand alone. In a sentence, they are often set off by commas.

The Rule: Don’t use interjections without context.

Holy smokes!

The above interjection doesn’t give away any information. The reader would not be able to discern what is happening from the interjection alone. When you write, describe the context that merits the interjection.

Holy smokes! I have never seen a pumpkin that color!

Nouns, verbs, and the other parts of speech you examined today are the building blocks of the English language. By mastering a few rules for each part of speech, you are laying a firm foundation for writing and communication. There are hundreds more rules to consider, but don’t be overwhelmed. Bricks used to build a house are laid one at a time.