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The Declaration of Independence: A Lesson in Language History

Language is constantly evolving – a fact made especially clear when we take a look at historical documents and note how writing norms have shifted over the years. The further back we go, the bigger the shift. The Declaration of Independence, for example, represents a version of English that is noticeably different than that which we use to communicate today.

What are the main grammatical differences between Thomas Jefferson’s version of English and our own? Read on to learn more.

Writing Style

The unusual writing style is one of the first things that many modern readers notice about the Declaration of Independence. Phrases and clauses are stacked together in sentences that threaten to become run-ons, and Jefferson was obviously in love with colons, semicolons, and dashes. The writing is also very persuasive, rational, and formal, using straightforward arguments to support moral principles. Government documents today tend to be dry and technical; few would read them voluntarily.

“That” vs. “Which”

Among the most troublesome of grammar nuances is the distinction between “that” and “which.” To summarize, “that” is used when the content that comes afterwards is necessary to the meaning of the sentence, otherwise known as a restrictive clause. “Which,” on the other hand, is used when non-essential information is being added to the sentence. The Chicago Manual of Style online has a great explanation and examples of how this works in practice.

In the Declaration of Independence, “which” is frequently used where “that” would be more appropriate (were the document to be revised today):

“…to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another…”

“…they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

Why is this? Well, there are two things going on. First, this grammar distinction is relatively new. Second, even today, British English and American English are on different wavelengths when it comes to the use of “that” and “which.” In 1776, American English had yet to separate very much from its British roots.

British English vs. American English

Speaking of “that” vs. “which,” another reason that the Declaration of Independence reads strangely is that, in 1776, British and American English had yet to become distinct forms. All English was still British English, but change was beginning to happen. Declaring independence from England most definitely helped that process along. Today, of course, English is a truly international language, with dozens of variations.

Gendered Language

In the 21^st century, we try to write in a way that doesn’t exclude or disempower any gender, race, or other group. Two centuries ago, we hadn’t quite reached that level of awareness. That’s why it’s not surprising to see phrases such as:

“…all men are created equal.”

“…Governments are instituted among Men…”

“…mankind are more disposed to suffer…”

In 1776, men ruled the world, so it seemed completely natural write using these masculine nouns. If we were gathering today with the purpose of writing a similar document, readers would probably see more words like “humanity,” “people,” and “society,” as these get the same idea across without ignoring half the population.

Spelling and Capitalization

Make no mistake: a few words here and there in the Declaration of Independence are absolutely misspelled by today’s standards. “Hath shewn,” “compleat,” and “Brittish” are the main offenders. The spelling of these words reveals a connection to the Middle English of Chaucer’s time. Regardless of the time period, spelling has always been a (sometimes unfair) way for people to judge others.

The non-standard capitalization of key words, on the other hand, functions to heighten emphasis and dramatic effect. Examples of the liberal use of capitalization in the Declaration of Independence include:

“Laws of Nature”

“Form of Government”

“Safety and Happiness”

“Standing Armies”

“Free and Independent States”

Although it’s been 238 years since the Declaration of Independence was drafted, only a few things stick out to strict grammarians as “wrong” by today’s standards. But as a whole, the text simply sounds strange to readers today.

Do you think that important documents, like the Declaration of Independence, should be updated to reflect today’s language standards? Share your thoughts in the comments, and Happy Independence Day (coming up on July 4)!

That’s How You Say It? 9 Words with Tricky Pronunciations

If you read a lot, you probably have an excellent vocabulary. But it also means that you may know a lot of words that you’ve only seen in writing and never heard spoken aloud. Sometimes even common words are easy to misread. Language enthusiasts have coined the term “misle” for a word that leads you to incorrect assumptions about its pronunciation. It comes from the word misled (as in, the past tense of mislead), which many language lovers admit to misreading at one time or another as the past tense of some imaginary verb along the lines of “to misle.”

Some common misles include:

Victuals: VITT-ulz (rhymes with “whittles”) n. Food; specifically, food fit for humans to eat

Biopic: BI-o-pik (portmanteau of “biography” and “picture”; does not rhyme with “myopic”) n. A movie about a person’s life

Ennui: on-WEE n. A pervasive feeling of boredom and dissatisfaction

Quay: KEE n. A structure at the edge of a body of water where boats load or unload passengers and freight

Chaise longue: SHAYZ LONG (not “chase lounge”) n. A type of long, low chair

Debacle: de-BOCK-ul (not DEB-uh-kul) n. A disaster

Desultory: DES-ul-tor-ee adj. Aimless, disappointing, or lacking serious effort

Spurious: SPYUR-ee-us (rhymes with “curious,” not “furriest” ) adj. Inauthentic, untrue, or deceitful

Caramel: KAR-mell, KAR-uh-mell, KEHR-uh-mell (They’re all correct! Just pick your favorite.) n. Candy made from butter, sugar, and milk; a light brown color

What misles have tripped you up? Let us know in the comment section below or via our Facebook or Twitter feeds.

Is vs. Are

• Use is with singular subjects and are with plural subjects.
• Collective nouns usually take is, but you can use are if you need to emphasize the individuals who belong to the group.
• Phrases like a number of… usually take a plural verb.

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When deciding whether to use is or are, look at whether the noun is plural or singular. If the noun is singular, use is. If it is plural or there is more than one noun, use are.

The cat is eating all of his food.

The cats are eating all of their food.

The cat and the dog are eating as fast as they can.

This is the most basic is vs. are grammar rule.

Is vs. Are with Collective Nouns

A collective noun refers to a group of people or things that is treated as a single entity in speech. Committee is a collective noun. A committee is made up of multiple people, but the word itself is singular in form. In American English, collective nouns take is. In British English, collective nouns can take is or are.

The committee is considering the budget right now.

The audience is getting antsy.

The couple is moving to California.

But even in American English, a collective noun can take are when you need to emphasize the individual members of the group.

The couple are keeping secrets from each other.

Is vs. Are with Mass Nouns

Mass nouns (also called noncount nouns) are similar to collective nouns. They refer to things that can’t really be counted. Sand and water are mass nouns. Mass nouns take is in both American and British English.

The sand is too hot to walk on!

Water is our most precious resource.

Pudding is very easy to make.

Is vs. Are with a Number of / a Pair of / a Group of

Collecting phrases like a number of or a pair of can make it hard to choose between is and are. Which verb do you use when you’re talking about a number of people? On one hand, number is singular, which calls for is. But people is plural, which calls for are. Typically, it’s best to use are with a number of. You may occasionally run into a pedant who disagrees, but actual usage is on your side.

A number of people are concerned about the lack of progress.

A number of people is concerned about the lack of progress.

Other collecting phrases like group of can take is when you’re emphasizing the group:

That group of protesters is sure to be distracting.

This series of books is phenomenal.

But they can also take are, when you’re emphasizing the individuals.

A bunch of my friends are going to different schools next fall.

A handful of new books are published each week.

When you’re talking about pairs, you’re usually treating two items as a unit, so it’s common to use is.

A good pair of shoes is a luxury in some parts of the world.

A good pair of shoes are a luxury in some parts of the world.

There Is vs. There Are

When choosing between there is and there are, you have to look at what comes after it.

There is a cat on the porch.

In the sentence above, cat is singular, so it requires there is.

There are many opportunities to learn at this company.

In the sentence above, opportunities is plural, so it requires there are. (Don’t let the word many throw you off—concentrate on the noun.)

Everytime or Every Time?

Everytime should be written as two separate words: every time. While some compound words like everywhere, everyday, and everyone have become commonplace in the English language, everytime is not considered an acceptable compound word. Consider the examples below:

You don’t need to remind me to do the dishes everytime.

You don’t need to remind me to do the dishes every time.

Everytime we breathe, we inhale pollutants.

Every time we breathe, we inhale pollutants.

5 Ways to Write Concisely

Nobody writes a perfect first draft. Whether you love the red pen or hate it with a passion, your first draft will require some polishing. The trick is to write prose that’s brilliant yet brief, colorful yet concise. Here are five tips for writing concisely.

Cut Weasel Words

Even the best writers fall prey to weasel words. These pesky critters sneak into your writing, take up space, and contribute nothing. Common weasel words include the following:

• Really
• Basically
• Actually
• Very
• More

They often attack in groups. Consider these weasely phrases:

• “The vast majority . . .”
• “Studies suggest that . . .”
• “Some would argue that . . .”

After you write a draft, take time to banish all weasel words back to the wilderness where they belong.

Axe Redundancy

Why do something twice if you only need to do it once? Redundant phrases clutter your writing and hinder its flow.

Consider the sentence: “I love the blue color of her eyes.”

“Blue color” is redundant. Your reader already understands that blue is a color. “I love her blue eyes” is more concise.

Another example: “The reason I’m reading this is because I love writing.”

You don’t need the word “reason” and the word “because” in the same sentence. One implies the other. “I’m reading this because I love writing” conveys your point with fewer words; it’s more concise.

Incorporate Transitional Words and Phrases

Transitional words and phrases unify ideas and make your writing easy to understand. Without them, your prose can come off as choppy and directionless.

• Transitional words like however, nevertheless, and conversely pave the way toward your next idea.
• Transitional phrases like for example and as shown by help readers understand that you’re clarifying an argument.

Next time you write, try to incorporate one or more transitional words or phrases to improve cohesion.

Go Easy on the Adverbs

Some writers resist adverbs the way a cat resists a leash. The grammar gods won’t strike you down if you insert an adverb here or there, but before you do, read these two sentences:

1. Adverbs aren’t horribly bad, but they’re usually not needed.
2. Your writing will be more concise if you avoid adverbs.

Which sentence packs more of a punch? The one without adverbs – number two. Words that end in “ly” are often just careless intensifiers that add no real meaning. Vivid writing shows the reader a picture; it doesn’t tell the reader what to think.

• “I broke my diet again!” Betty wailed sadly.
• “I broke my diet again!” Betty wailed, wiping salty chocolate tears from the corners of her mouth.

The second example includes no adverbs, and it creates a clearer picture in the reader’s mind than the first. We see the salty chocolate crumbs on Betty’s lips, and we feel her bittersweet anguish.

Skip “There is” and “There are”

You could be the most energetic person on earth, but writing “There is” or “There are” makes you look lazy. Consider rearranging your sentence parts when these passive pairings pop up in your writing.

• “There are lots of people in this world who love bumpy cake” becomes “People around the world love bumpy cake.”
• “There is a stink bug in every room of my house” becomes “Stink bugs have descended upon every room of my house.”

Plenty of writers, both amateur and professional, start their sentences with “There is” and “There are.” You needn’t be one of them.

Stephen King said, “To write is human. To edit is divine.” So the next time you find yourself wrestling with a few extra words, just remember: you’re in excellent company. Are you ready to pick up that red pen and start slashing?

Are gender-neutral pronouns the wave of the future?

The reader must understand that they are at the mercy of the author’s imagination.

What’s wrong with the sentence above? Some might say there is nothing at all is wrong with it. Others, however, will take issue with the use of ‘they,’ a plural pronoun, in place of the singular ‘reader.’ How can this sentence be corrected? Some would use ‘he’ in place of ‘they,’ with the understanding that masculine pronouns are a stand-in for proper nouns of either gender. Others would advocate ‘he or she’ in place of ‘they,’ because it includes both genders.

Gendered pronouns have a long history of causing grammatical confusion and debate. As far back as the 1800s, writers and linguists have proposed gender-neutral pronouns (including ze, co, hesh, thon, and zher) to solve the complicated issues that gendered pronouns cause in English.

Gender-neutral pronouns solve many grammatical problems, but why haven’t they caught on in English? According to John McWhorter at The New Republic, that’s because there are two kinds of words: open-class and closed-class. Nouns and verbs are among the open-class words and can be adapted or even made up depending on necessity and context. Pronouns and prepositions are closed-class words—words that we use as tools to show the relationships between open-class words. Closed-class words are harder to adapt and change since they’re already representing something else (for example, ‘he’ represents ‘Brian’).

McWhorter argues that since it’s unlikely that a new gender-neutral pronoun will ever gain wide acceptance in English, it’s okay to use the plural ‘they’ in place of ‘he’ or ‘she.’ Other alternatives include ‘one’ to mean ‘a person,’ and ‘you’ in certain contexts.

Many other languages don’t include gendered pronouns at all or include gender neutral pronouns in their structure.

Will the English language eventually accept the use of ‘they’ as a singular gender-neutral pronoun? Will an alternative like ze gain widespread acceptance and use? Let us know what you think in the comments section.

Sources: 1,2,3