When a pronoun replaces a noun, the noun is called an antecedent.
Michael is the antecedent and he is the pronoun. The antecedent doesn’t have to go before the pronoun, but putting the pronoun first can make long or complex sentences harder to follow.
To learn more about grammar and to help us celebrate National Grammar Day this March, visit our new resource page.
At first glance, the rules of English capitalization seem simple. You probably know you should capitalize proper nouns and the first word of every sentence. But you also (sometimes) capitalize the first word of a quote. Usually you don’t capitalize after a colon, but there are exceptions. And what do you do when you’re not sure whether something is a proper noun?
1 Capitalize the First Word of a Sentence
This one’s easy. Always capitalize the first word of a sentence.
2 Capitalize Names and Other Proper Nouns
You should always capitalize people’s names.
Names are proper nouns. The names of cities, countries, companies, religions, and political parties are also proper nouns, so you should capitalize them, too.
You should also capitalize words like mom and grandpa when they are used as a form of address.
But
3 Don’t Capitalize After a Colon (Usually)
In most cases, you don’t need to capitalize after a colon.
There are a couple of common exceptions. One is when the word following the colon is a proper noun.
The other exception is when the words following the colon form one or more complete sentences.
4 Capitalize the First Word of a Quote (Sometimes)
Capitalize the first word of a quote when the quote is a complete sentence.
Don’t capitalize the first word of partial quotes.
5 Capitalize Days, Months, and Holidays, But Not Seasons
The names of days, months, and holidays are proper nouns, so you should capitalize them.
The names of seasons, however, are not proper nouns, so there’s no need to capitalize them.
6 Capitalize Most Words in Titles
The capitalization rules for titles of books, movies, and other works vary a little between style guides. In general, you should capitalize the first word, all nouns, all verbs (even short ones, like is), all adjectives, and all proper nouns. That means you should lowercase articles, conjunctions, and prepositions—however, some style guides say to capitalize conjunctions and prepositions that are longer than five letters.
7 Capitalize Cities, Countries, Nationalities, and Languages
The names of cities, countries, nationalities, and languages are proper nouns, so you should capitalize them.
8 Capitalize Time Periods and Events (Sometimes)
Specific periods, eras, and historical events that have proper names should be capitalized.
However, centuries—and the numbers before them—are not capitalized.
Whether you realize it or not, you’re a writer.
It’s hard not to be one in the information age, when writing is essential, if not inescapable. Maybe you’re keeping up with old friends and upcoming assignments. Or perhaps you’re trying to impress a hiring committee or a hot date. We’re constantly dashing off notes and status updates with a regularity that would’ve been the envy of anyone in the era of telegrams and typewriters, let alone the cloistered monks who hand-copied ancient scrolls by candlelight.
It’s easier than ever to hammer out reams of words on all manner of gadgets that can go just about anywhere. The act of writing is hardly confined to the monastery, er, office; we do it in coffee shops, on the train, and in bed. We send text messages and respond to emails when we’re half asleep, when we’re getting a ride home, or maybe having just stepped out of the shower.
At Grammarly, we help legions of writers just like you get their ideas down clearly and in ways that will help them look sharp. We also learn a lot about what writers are like – from what programs they use to what time of day their prose usually comes out looking its best. After proofreading and analyzing more than a billion words, here are a few of the patterns we’ve found particularly interesting about how you tend to write:
1 The average writer cranks out roughly a thousand words per week.
Among U.S. Grammarly users, the weekly average is 980 words, to be precise. Multiply that by 52 weeks, and you’re mashing out 50,960 words each year. That’s about equivalent to a light summer novel – enough of a read to last through several lazy days at the beach, at least.
2 That’s mostly in emails, according to user data, along with programs like Microsoft Word – but plenty of writing also happens online in social media and blogs.
Hundreds of thousands of new statuses and comments appear on Facebook every. single. minute. (Rules of punctuation trampled here for emphasis.) This is to say nothing of the perhaps dozens of text messages you might send back and forth each day. Frequent texters can crank out thousands of words per month, just in their preferred messaging app.
3 Most of the mistakes you make in emails are misspelled words.
Users averaged around a dozen mistakes per every hundred words – and more than half of those were spelling errors.
4 You’re especially prone to making gaffes on social media – nearly three times as likely as anywhere else you write.
This may not surprise you, as such platforms tend to be more casual and invite lots of slang and abbreviations, tbh. Here, we found an average of close to 40 mistakes in every hundred typed words.
5 What time of day you write has a clear impact on how often you make mistakes.
We found a decided difference between the patterns of early birds, who write from 4 to 8 a.m., and night owls, who work from 10 p.m. to 2 a.m. As you might guess, one seems clear-headed and fresh, while the other is a bit more more muddled. Indeed:
6 You tend to do your best writing early in the morning – before 8 a.m.
Across platforms, early birds averaged 13.8 mistakes per 100 words – 3.2 fewer than the night owls’ 17.
7 Those writing for blogs make the fewest mistakes after lunch, between 1 and 5 p.m. Even so, early birds still outperformed night owls, with the 4 to 8 a.m. crowd averaging 5.6 mistakes per 100 words, compared to the night owls’ 9.1.
8 Still, good writing can happen at any time.
It’s worth noting there is some evidence that staying up late to work may be an evolutionarily advantageous behavior associated with high intelligence – even if folks who do it need to be extra mindful of their writing.
9 Apostrophe mistakes were the most common source of errors.
A common example is let’s vs. lets. The former is a contraction of “let us,” while the latter means “allows,” as in “this lets us avoid similar errors.” (Of course, you can always brush up on sound apostrophe usage right here.)
10 Too vs. To was next down the list, followed by Everyday vs. Every Day
Rounding out the most common mistakes were such mix-ups as than vs. then, there vs. their, and of vs. off. As ever, you can find tips on our blog – answers to such questions and more are right there.
As we wrap up, there’s one more fun observation we’d like to share about writers online, which applies more broadly, not just to folks using Grammarly:
11 Bonus – Writers on the web may be using more and more languages, not just English.
English enjoyed something of a head start among early Internet users and was once regarded as the default language of the web. As the British linguist David Graddol wrote two decades ago in his paper “The Future of English?”:
The system has its origins in the academic and, in particular, scientific community, which is the longest connected community of all. English is deeply established among scientists as the international lingua franca and, from this beginning, English appears to have extended its domain of use to become the preferred lingua franca for the many new kinds of user who have come online in the 1990s…
In a reflection that looks increasingly prescient, Graddol goes on to note that at the time, some 90 percent of the computers online were connected through English-speaking countries, suggesting that in the years since, as the technology has grown ever more global, it’s gotten easier and easier to communicate in other languages.
Indeed, some estimate that now just over half of all content on the web is in English, but it’s not easy to track precisely; other experts believe it’s below 40 percent. Notably, in China, hundreds of millions of users blog and post updates in Chinese to social media sites like Renren and Sina Weibo.
Whatever your preferred language, platform, or time of day to work, it’s always worth a second look to make sure your writing is radiant and clear.
A comma splice is particular kind of comma mistake that happens when you use a comma to join two independent clauses. Here’s an example:
How can you tell that’s a comma splice? Look at the group of words before the comma.
Did you notice that this group of words can stand by itself as a complete sentence? That means it’s an independent clause.
Now look at the group of words after the comma.
This group of words can also stand by itself as a complete sentence. It’s another independent clause.
When you have two independent clauses, a comma is not strong enough to glue them together.
There are three common ways to fix a comma splice. Let’s look at a new example:
One way to fix a comma splice is to add a conjunction immediately after the comma. With most comma splices, the conjunction you’ll want to add is probably and, but, or so.
If adding a conjunction doesn’t seem to work, you can change the comma to a semicolon instead. Unlike commas, semicolons are strong enough to glue two independent clauses together.
If you decide to use a semicolon, make sure there is a close, logical connection between the two independent clauses.
If adding a conjunction doesn’t seem to work and using a semicolon feels too stuffy, you can fix a comma splice by simply making each independent clause a separate sentence.
Are you getting the hang of it? Here are a few more examples of comma splices and possible corrections.
Adding a conjunction like and or but after the comma in the sentence above doesn’t really make sense. But there does seem to be a close, logical connection between the first independent clause (I’m thinking of skipping English class) and the second independent clause (it’s really boring). This is the perfect situation for a semicolon.
You could also break those two independent clauses apart and make them separate sentences.
Let’s try another:
In this case, the conjunction so fits the bill.
Or you could use a semicolon.
Or you could make two sentences, especially if you want to sound blunt.
Yes! You should avoid comma splices in formal writing, but now that you know the rule, you can sometimes break it in more artistic types of writing.
In fiction, for instance, you might use a comma splice to convey a character’s racing thoughts or observations.
Comma splices can also create a sense of grandeur in rhetoric, but only if they’re used sparingly.
And in poetry, of course, the rules are even more relaxed. Sometimes, a comma splice creates just the right rhythm.
That’s it! Now you’re ready to get out there and use your commas with confidence.
Introductory clauses are dependent clauses that are often found at the beginning of the sentence (although they can be moved to the end of the sentence, too, without confusing the meaning of the sentence). After a dependent introductory clause, we use a comma to separate the introductory clause from the independent clause. Consider the examples below:
As with many other rules in English grammar, the comma-after-introductory-clauses rule comes with an exception. When the introductory clause is short, the comma may be omitted as a matter of style. See the example below:
Since the introductory clause consists of only three words, the comma separating the introductory clause from the main clause may or may not be used.
Although it is not strictly required, it is considered good style to follow introductory dependent clauses containing dates with a comma. This is true whether the date given denotes a century, a year, a month, or even a day.
But if the date does not appear as an introductory clause, no commas are necessary.
How to start a letter, what type of letter you should write, what letter format you should choose—everyone should be familiar with these basics of letter writing. Here’s the information you need to know, along with some helpful examples.
There are no hard-and-fast rules. What letter format you choose depends on your audience. For a friend or close relative, a casual, handwritten message is usually the best way to go. However, for business contacts or people you don’t know well, a typed formal letter is almost always the most appropriate choice.
Formal letters begin with the sender’s name and address. Some companies use special paper, called letterhead, that includes contact information.
The next line of a formal letter and the first line of an informal letter is the date. Write it two lines after your address or at the top of a casual letter.
Additionally, formal letters need the name and address of the recipient two spaces after the date. Incorporating all this information ensures that your letter can be used as a reference to contact you after the recipient discards the envelope.
Finally, you’re ready to greet the person (or business) to whom you’re writing. Skip a space from any addresses you’ve included. Casual letters are easy; you can start with “Hello” or another customary greeting. Formal letters begin with “Dear” followed by the name of the receiver. If you don’t have a contact at a certain company, search online for a name, a job title, or department. For example, you might try “Dear Manager” or “Dear Human Resources Department.” As a last resort, use the generic salutation “To Whom It May Concern.” A comma follows all greetings.
The content of your letter will vary, so let’s focus on some general guidelines.
Do. . . keep it focused. Business letters should have a clear objective. Even personal letters shouldn’t ramble. Proofread. Errors can cause misunderstandings.
Don’t. . . use contractions in formal letters. And definitely avoid writing anything you’ll regret being recorded for posterity.
Leave a blank space between your closing paragraph and the complimentary closing. A complimentary close is a polite way to send your regards to your receiver. One of the most common closers is “Sincerely,” and it’s generally a safe bet. If you have a warmer relationship with the recipient, you can sign off with “Warm regards” or “Cordially.” There are dozens of options, so you’ll have to do a little research to determine which is best for you. Commas follow all complimentary closings. Remember, only the first letter of the phrase is capitalized. Leave another couple of spaces for the last step—your signature! Type your full name underneath it in formal letters.
With sincere gratitude, Signature Dr. Malcolm J. Carl, Jr.
P.S. stands for postscript. It’s something you add at the last minute after the letter is complete. Typically, you don’t add postscripts to formal letters; if you need to add something, you’ll have to revise the whole document to include the new information.
In the United States, the maximum weight for a first-class letter is 3.5 ounces. If your letter is more than three pages or you’ve written it on heavy paper, you’ll have to weigh it to make sure it meets the requirements. The size and shape of the envelope matter too. It has to be rectangular and less than roughly 6×11 inches or you run the risk of the post office returning it.
After you’ve determined that the envelope is the right kind, the hardest part is over. Now, you just have to mail it. (If it’s a personal letter, you can always deliver it yourself. In that case, just write the intended recipient’s name on the outside of the envelope. A bonus of hand-delivery?: You can use any size or shape envelope that you want!) In the top left-hand corner, write your name and address or attach a mailing label. In the center of the envelope, carefully write the address of the recipient. Besides the state abbreviation and zip code, international letters should include the country for both the destination and return address. Postage rates vary. Check the USPS website for current prices or use a forever stamp for US destinations. Double-check that everything is correct on the outside of the envelope. If it is, fold your letter and insert it inside neatly. Don’t seal it until you’re sure that you’ve included every page you intend to send.
Doesn’t it feel good sending a letter that you know you’ve carefully prepared? Certainly, a well-written letter has the best chance of accomplishing its purpose. But what about a cover letter for a job application? Cover letters have their own set of best practices. Read everything you need to know about how to write a cover letter before you send out your next resume!
If you are shy or socially awkward, you probably hate networking. Even if you find it difficult to approach professionals in your field, you can still alleviate some of the stress with these ten useful networking tips.
1 Know who will be there.
To be forewarned is to be forearmed. Knowing the attendees in advance gives you the chance to beef up on the company’s goals and show interest in its latest achievements. It also removes the fear of the unknown. Naturally, some people you weren’t expecting will turn up. However, as they say, half a loaf is better than no bread. Start off talking to the people you prepared for until you feel confident enough to approach the others.
2 Ask open-ended questions.
To avoid awkward silence, aim for open-ended questions rather than yes-no questions. Listen carefully to the response and try to think of a follow-up comment or question to keep the conversation going. If someone asks you a question, “And you?” is an easy way to continue the discussion.
3 Set definite goals for the interaction.
Don’t you love playing a video game and hearing the words: “Level complete!” You can generate that feeling at networking events by setting interpersonal goals. For instance, commit to staying at least a half hour. After the time is up, leave without guilt. Or, set a goal to talk to at least five new people. Setting objectives makes networking events seem less overwhelming because you have a manageable goal in mind. Also, you might find that once you get the ball rolling, you can push yourself past the minimums that you set.
4 Arrive early.
If big groups freak you out, it’s best to come while the crowd is still thin. Besides being quieter, a room with few people is less intimidating than one packed from wall to wall. Punctuality also gives you a conversational advantage. You’ll find it easier to approach others if they aren’t already in the throes of conversation.
5 Find the connection.
What do you have in common with the person with whom you are conversing? In 1929, Frigyes Karinthy proposed that each individual in the world is only six or fewer steps away from any other person. Granted, there were fewer people on earth back then, but you should be able to find some common ground. Did you major in the same subject? Do you share hobbies or causes? Challenging yourself to find the connection will motivate you to keep the conversation flowing. As a bonus, you will have a great excuse to exchange contact information with your new buddy. Later, you will feel comfortable asking for advice or a job referral. If you really hit it off, you can invite your contact to an event that you think you will both enjoy.
6 Have a few emergency ice-breakers ready.
If you find a conversation going stagnant, plan a few interesting ice-breakers. In a small group, you might try a getting-to-know-you game that involves everyone. The following idea comes from EventManager Blog: Ask everyone to think of one word that describes a topic of your choice. (For a group of doctors, for instance, you might choose “medical school.”) The responses should give you some laughs and opportunities to share experiences.
7 Look approachable.
The extroverts will flock to you if you look welcoming. Smile and try to make eye contact. Practice open body language. That means no folded arms or hiding behind your hair! This warm, friendly demeanor will make others want to find out who you are.
8 Rely on your tribe.
Why go at it alone? Invite colleagues and associates to attend networking events with you. Even if you don’t spend much time with them, their friendly faces will make you feel at ease. You can also practice your elevator pitch with people you know and ask them for feedback before the event.
9 Make a good last impression, even if the first one wasn’t ideal.
Even if you felt like you failed to impress in person, you still have a chance to shine on paper. Send a brief thank you note or email to show how much you enjoyed meeting the participant. You can thank them for taking time to talk with you. Once you make contact, you can update them about the status of your job search (or ask them about theirs if they are a jobseeker too.)
10 Follow through on referrals.
If you fail to follow through on referrals, you are letting all your hard work go to waste. A lack of response also shows disrespect for the people who vouched for you. Even if you don’t accept a job, you should still thank the referrer and the hiring manager for their time.
Networking is necessary, and it doesn’t have to be evil! Admit it; these networking tips won’t be impossible to try. Which one do you want to tackle first?
